The Bill Of Rights

The Bill Of Rights Bill of RightsHow many rights do you have? You should check, because it might not be as many todayas it was a few years ago, or even a few months ago. Some people I talk to are notconcerned that police will execute a search warrant without knocking or that they set uproadblocks and stop and interrogate innocent citizens. They do not regard these as greatinfringements on their rights. But when you put current events together, there is informationthat may be surprising to people who have not yet been concerned: The amount of the Billof Rights that is under attack is alarming.Let's take a look at the Bill of Rights and see which aspects are being pushed on orthreatened. The point here is not the degree of each attack or its rightness or wrongness,but the sheer number of rights that are under attack.Andrew Jacobs / 20070811.10D.44747 / SML SkydiveAmendment ICongress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the freeexercise thereof; or abridging the freedo m of speech, or of the press; or the right of thepeople peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.ESTABLISHING RELIGION: While campaigning for his first term, George Bush said 'Idon't know that atheists should be considered as citizens, nor should they be consideredpatriots.' Bush has not retracted, commented on, or clarified this statement, in spite ofrequests to do so. According to Bush, this is one nation under God. And apparently if youare not within Bush's religious beliefs, you are not a citizen. Federal, state, and localgovernments also promote a particular religion (or, occasionally, religions) by spendingpublic money on religious displays.FREE EXERCISE OF RELIGION: Robert Newmeyer and Glenn Braunstein were jailedin 1988 for refusing to stand in respect for a judge. Braunstein says the tradition of rising incourt started decades ago when judges entered carrying Bibles. Since judges no longercarry Bibles, Braunstein says there is no rea son to stand and his Bible tells him to honorno other God. For this religious practice, Newmeyer and Braunstein were jailed and arenow suing.FREE SPEECH: We find that technology has given the government an excuse to interferewith free speech. Claiming that radio frequencies are a limited resource, the governmenttells broadcasters what to say (such as news and public and local service programming) andwhat not to say (obscenity, as defined by the Federal Communications Commission[FCC]). The FCC is investigating Boston PBS station WGBH-TV for broadcastingphotographs from the Mapplethorpe exhibit.FREE SPEECH: There are also laws to limit political statements and contributions topolitical activities. In 1985, the Michigan Chamber of Commerce wanted to take out anadvertisement supporting a candidate in the state house of representatives. But a 1976Michigan law prohibits a corporation from using its general treasury funds to makeindependent expenditures in a political campaign. In March, the Supreme Court upheld thatlaw. According to dissenting Justice Kennedy, it is now a felony in Michigan for the SierraClub, the American Civil Liberties Union, or the Chamber of Commerce to advise thepublic how a candidate voted on issues of urgent concern to their members.FREE PRESS: As in speech, technology has provided another excuse for governmentintrusion in the press. If you distribute a magazine electronically and do not print copies, thegovernment doesn't consider you a press and does not give you the same protections courtshave extended to printed news. The equipment used to publish Phrack, a worldwideelectronic magazine about phones and hacking, was confiscated after publishing a documentcopied from a Bell South computer entitled 'A Bell South Standard Practice (BSP)660-225-104SV Control Office Administration of Enhanced 911 Services for SpecialServices and Major Account Centers, March, 1988.' All of the information in thisdocument was publicly available from Bell South in other documents. The government hasnot alleged that the publisher of Phrack, Craig Neidorf, was involved with or participated inthe copying of the document. Also, the person who copied this document from telephonecompany computers placed a copy on a bulletin board run by Rich Andrews. Andrewsforwarded a copy to ATT officials and cooperated with authorities fully. In return, theSecret Service (SS) confiscated Andrews' computer along with all the mail and data thatwere on it. Andrews was not charged with any crime.FREE PRESS: In another incident that would be comical if it were not true, on March 1 theSS ransacked the offices of Steve Jackson Games (SJG); irreparably damaged property;and confiscated three computers, two laser printers, several hard disks, and many boxes ofpaper and floppy disks. The target of the SS operation was to seize all copies of a game offiction called GURPS Cyberpunk. The Cyberpunk game contains fictitious break-ins in afuturistic world, with no technical i nformation of actual use with real computers, nor is itplayed on computers. The SS never filed any charges against SJG but still refused to returnconfiscated property.PEACEABLE ASSEMBLY: The right to assemble peaceably is no longer free you haveto get a permit. Even that is not enough; some officials have to be sued before they realizetheir reasons for denying a permit are not Constitutional.PEACEABLE ASSEMBLY: In Alexandria, Virginia, there is a law that prohibits peoplefrom loitering for more than seven minutes and exchanging small objects. Punishment is twoyears in jail. Consider the scene in jail: 'What'd you do?' 'I was waiting at a bus stop andgave a guy a cigarette.' This is not an impossible occurrence: In Pittsburgh, Eugene Tyler,15, has been ordered away from bus stops by police officers. Sherman Jones, also 15, wasaccosted with a police officer's hands around his neck after putting the last bit of pizza crustinto his mouth. The police suspected him of hiding drugs.PETITI ON FOR REDRESS OF GRIEVANCES: Rounding out the attacks on the firstamendment, there is a sword hanging over the right to petition for redress of grievances.House Resolution 4079, the National Drug and Crime Emergency Act, tries to 'modify' theright to habeas corpus. It sets time limits on the right of people in custody to petition forredress and also limits the courts in which such an appeal may be heard.Amendment IIA well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of thepeople to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS: This amendment is so commonly challenged that the movementhas its own name: gun control. Legislation banning various types of weapons is supportedwith the claim that the weapons are not for 'legitimate' sporting purposes. This is aperversion of the right to bear arms for two reasons. First, the basis of freedom is not thatpermission to do legitimate things is granted to the people, but rather that the governme nt isempowered to do a limited number of legitimate things everything else people are free todo; they do not need to justify their choices. Second, should the need for defense arise, itwill not be hordes of deer that the security of a free state needs to be defended from.Defense would be needed against humans, whether external invaders or internaloppressors. It is an unfortunate fact of life that the guns that would be needed to defend thesecurity of a state are guns to attack people, not guns for sporting purposes.Firearms regulations also empower local officials, such as police chiefs, to grant or denypermits. This results in towns where only friends of people in the right places are grantedpermits, or towns where women are generally denied the right to carry a weapon forself-defense.Amendment IIINo Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of theOwner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.QUARTERING SOLDIERS: This amend ment is fairly clean so far, but it is not entirelysafe. Recently, 200 troops in camouflage dress with M-16s and helicopters swept throughKings Ridge National Forest in Humboldt County, California. In the process of searchingfor marijuana plants for four days, soldiers assaulted people on private land with M-16sand barred them from their own property. This might not be a direct hit on the thirdamendment, but the disregard for private property is uncomfortably close.Amendment IVThe right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects, againstunreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, butupon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing theplace to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.RIGHT TO BE SECURE IN PERSONS, HOUSES, PAPERS AND EFFECTSAGAINST UNREASONABLE SEARCHES AND SEIZURES: The RICO law is makinga mockery of the right to be secure from seizure. Entire stores of books or videotapes havebeen confiscated based upon the presence of some sexually explicit items. Bars,restaurants, or houses are taken from the owners because employees or tenants sold drugs.In Volusia County, Florida, Sheriff Robert Vogel and his officers stop automobiles forcontrived violations. If large amounts of cash are found, the police confiscate it on thePRESUMPTION that it is drug money even if there is no other evidence and no chargesare filed against the car's occupants. The victims can get their money back only if theyprove the money was obtained legally. One couple got their money back by proving it wasan insurance settlement. Two other men who tried to get their two thousand dollars backwere denied by the Florida courts.RIGHT TO BE SECURE IN PERSONS, HOUSES, PAPERS AND EFFECTSAGAINST UNREASONABLE SEARCHES AND SEIZURES: A new law goes intoeffect in Oklahoma on January 1, 1991. All property, real and personal, is taxable, andcitizens are required to list all their personal property for tax assessors, including householdfurniture, gold and silver plate, musical instruments, watches, jewelry, and personal, private,or professional libraries. If a citizen refuses to list their property or is suspected of not listingsomething, the law directs the assessor to visit and enter the premises, getting a searchwarrant if necessary. Being required to tell the state everything you own is not being securein one's home and effects.NO WARRANTS SHALL ISSUE, BUT UPON PROBABLE CAUSE, SUPPORTEDBY OATH OR AFFIRMATION:As a supporting oath or affirmation, reports of anonymous informants are accepted. Thispractice has been condoned by the Supreme Court.PARTICULARLY DESCRIBING THE PLACE TO BE SEARCHED AND PERSONSOR THINGS TO BE SEIZED: Today's warrants do not particularly describe the things tobe seized they list things that might be present. For example, if police are making a drugraid, they will list weapons as things to be searched for and seized. This is done not becausethe police know of any weapons and can particularly describe them, but because theyallege people with drugs often have weapons.Both of the above apply to the warrant the Hudson, New Hampshire, police used whenthey broke down Bruce Lavoie's door at 5 a.m. with guns drawn and shot and killed him.The warrant claimed information from an anonymous informant, and it said, among otherthings, that guns were to be seized. The mention of guns in the warrant was used as reasonto enter with guns drawn. Bruce Lavoie had no guns. Bruce Lavoie was not secure fromunreasonable search and seizure nor is anybody else.Other infringements on the fourth amendment include roadblocks and the Boston Policedetention of people based on colors they are wearing (supposedly indicating gangmembership). And in Pittsburgh again, Eugene Tyler was once searched because he waswearing sweat pants and a plaid shirt police told him they heard many drug dealers atthat time were wearing sweat pants and plaid shir ts.Amendment VNo person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on apresentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or navalforces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall anyperson be subject to the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shallbe compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life,liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken forpublic use without just compensation.INDICTMENT OF A GRAND JURY: Kevin Bjornson has been proprietor ofHydro-Tech for nearly a decade and is a leading authority on hydroponic technology andcultivation. On October 26, 1989, both locations of Hydro-Tech were raided by the DrugEnforcement Administration. National Drug Control Policy Director William Bennett hasdeclared that some indoor lighting and hydroponic equipment is purchased by mari juanagrowers, so retailers and wholesalers of such equipment are drug profiteers andco-conspirators. Bjornson was not charged with any crime, nor subpoenaed, issued awarrant, or arrested. No illegal substances were found on his premises. Federal officialswere unable to convince grand juries to indict Bjornson. By February, they had calledscores of witnesses and recalled many two or three times, but none of the grand juries theyconvened decided there was reason to criminally prosecute Bjornson. In spite of that, as ofMarch, his bank accounts were still frozen and none of the inventories or records had beenreturned. Grand juries refused to indict Bjornson, but the government is still penalizing him.TWICE PUT IN JEOPARDY OF LIFE OR LIMB: Members of the McMartin family inCalifornia have been tried two or three times for child abuse. Anthony Barnaby was triedfor murder (without evidence linking him to the crime) three times before New Hampshirelet him go.COMPELLED TO BE A WITNESS AGAINST HIMSELF: Oliver North was forced totestify against himself. Congress granted him immunity from having anything he said to thembeing used as evidence against him, and then they required him to talk. After he did so,what he said was used to find other evidence which was used against him. The courts alsoplay games where you can be required to testify against yourself if you testify at all.COMPELLED TO BE A WITNESS AGAINST HIMSELF: In the New York CentralPark assault case, three people were found guilty of assault. But there was no physicalevidence linking them to the crime; semen did not match any of the defendants. The onlyevidence the state had was confessions. To obtain these confessions, the police questioneda 15-year old without a parent present which is illegal under New York state law. Policealso refused to let the subject's Big Brother, an attorney for the Federal government, seehim during questioning. Police screamed 'You better tell us what we want to hear andcooperate or y ou are going to jail,' at 14-year-old Antron McCray, according to BobbyMcCray, his father. Antron McCray 'confessed' after his father told him to, so that policewould release him. These people were coerced into bearing witness against themselves, andthose confessions were used to convict them.COMPELLED TO BE A WITNESS AGAINST HIMSELF: Your answers to Censusquestions are required by law, with a $100 penalty for each question not answered. Butpeople have been evicted for giving honest Census answers. According to the GeneralAccounting Office, one of the most frequent ways city governments use census informationis to detect illegal two-family dwellings. This has happened in Montgomery County,Maryland; Pullman, Washington; and Long Island, New York. The August 8, 1989, WallStreet Journal reports this and other ways Census answers have been used against theanswerers.COMPELLED TO BE A WITNESS AGAINST HIMSELF: Drug tests are beingrequired from more and more people, even when there is no pr obable cause, no accident,and no suspicion of drug use. Requiring people to take drug tests compels them to provideevidence against themselves.DEPRIVED OF LIFE, LIBERTY, OR PROPERTY WITHOUT DUE PROCESS OFLAW: This clause is violated on each of the items life, liberty, and property. Incidentsincluding such violations are described elsewhere in this article. Here are two more: OnMarch 26, 1987, in Jeffersontown, Kentucky, Jeffrey Miles was killed by police officerJohn Rucker, who was looking for a suspected drug dealer. Rucker had been sent to thewrong house; Miles was not wanted by police. He received no due process. In Detroit,$4,834 was seized from a grocery store after dogs detected traces of cocaine on threeone-dollar bills in a cash register.PRIVATE PROPERTY TAKEN FOR PUBLIC USE WITHOUT JUSTCOMPENSATION: RICO is shredding this aspect of the Bill of Rights. The moneyconfiscated by Sheriff Vogel goes directly into Vogel's budget; it is not regulated by thelegislature. Federal and local governments seize and auction boats, buildings, and otherproperty. Under RICO, the government is seizing property without due process. Thevictims are required to prove not only that they are not guilty of a crime, but that they areentitled to their property. Otherwise, the government auctions off the property and keepsthe proceeds.Amendment VIIn all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, byan impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed,which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of thenature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to havecompulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance ofcounsel for his defence.THE RIGHT TO A SPEEDY AND PUBLIC TRIAL: Surprisingly, the right to a publictrial is under attack. When Marion Barry was being tried, the prosecution attempted to barLouis Fa rrakhan and George Stallings from the gallery. This request was based on anallegation that they would send silent and 'impermissible messages' to the jurors. The judgeinitially granted this request. One might argue that the whole point of a public trial is to senda message to all the participants: The message is that the public is watching; the trial hadbetter be fair.BY AN IMPARTIAL JURY: The government does not even honor the right to trial by animpartial jury. US District Judge Edward Rafeedie is investigating improper influence onjurors by US marshals in the Enrique Camarena case. US marshals apparently illegallycommunicated with jurors during deliberations.OF THE STATE AND DISTRICT WHEREIN THE CRIME SHALL HAVE BEENCOMMITTED: This is incredible, but Manuel Noriega is being tried so far away from theplace where he is alleged to have committed crimes that the United States had to invadeanother country and overturn a government to get him. Nor is this a unique occurrence; in amatte r separate from the Camarena case, Judge Rafeedie was asked to dismiss chargesagainst Mexican gynecologist Dr. Humberto Alvarez Machain on the grounds that thedoctor was illegally abducted from his Guadalajara office in April and turned over to USauthorities.TO BE INFORMED OF THE NATURE AND CAUSE OF THE ACCUSATION:Steve Jackson Games, nearly put out of business by the raid described previously, has beenstonewalled by the SS. 'For the past month or so these guys have been insisting the bookwasn't the target of the raid, but they don't say what the target was, or why they werecritical of the book, or why they won't give it back,' Steve Jackson says. 'They haverepeatedly denied we're targets but don't explain why we've been made victims.' Attorneysfor SJG tried to find out the basis for the search warrant that led to the raid on SJG. But theapplication for that warrant was sealed by order of the court and remained sealed at lastreport, in July. Not only has the SS taken property and ne arly destroyed a publisher, it willnot even explain the nature and cause of the accusations that led to the raid.TO BE CONFRONTED WITH THE WITNESSES AGAINST HIM: The courts arebeginning to play fast and loose with the right to confront witnesses. Watch out foranonymous witnesses and videotaped testimony.TO HAVE COMPULSORY PROCESS FOR OBTAINING WITNESSES: RonaldReagan resisted submitting to subpoena and answering questions about Irangate, claimingmatters of national security and executive privilege. A judge had to dismiss some chargesagainst Irangate participants because the government refused to provide informationsubpoenaed by the defendants. And one wonders if the government would go to the samelengths to obtain witnesses for Manuel Noriega as it did to capture him.TO HAVE THE ASSISTANCE OF COUNSEL: The right to assistance of counsel took ahit recently. Connecticut Judge Joseph Sylvester is refusing to assign public defenders topeople ACCUSED of drug-related crimes, including drun k driving.TO HAVE THE ASSISTANCE OF COUNSEL: RICO is also affecting the right to havethe assistance of counsel. The government confiscates the money of an accused person,which leaves them unable to hire attorneys. The IRS has served summonses nationwide todefense attorneys, demanding the names of clients who paid cash for fees exceeding$10,000.Amendment VIIIn Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, theright of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwisereexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of common law.RIGHT OF TRIAL BY JURY IN SUITS AT COMMON LAW: This is a simple right; sofar the government has not felt threatened by it and has not made attacks on it that I amaware of. This is our only remaining safe haven in the Bill of Rights.Amendment VIIIExcessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusualpunishments inflicted.EXCESSIVE BAIL AN D FINES: Tallahatchie County in Mississippi charges ten dollars aday to each person who spends time in the jail, regardless of the length of stay or theoutcome of their trial. This means innocent people are forced to pay. Marvin Willis wasstuck in jail for 90 days trying to raise $2,500 bail on an assault charge. But after he madethat bail, he was kept imprisoned because he could not pay the $900 rent Tallahatchiedemanded. Nine former inmates are suing the county for this practice.CRUEL AND UNUSUAL PUNISHMENTS: House Resolution 4079 sticks its nose inhere too: '... a Federal court shall not hold prison or jail crowding unconstitutional under theeighth amendment except to the extent that an individual plaintiff inmate proves that thecrowding causes the infliction of cruel and unusual punishment of that inmate.'CRUEL AND UNUSUAL PUNISHMENTS: A life sentence for selling a quarter of agram of cocaine for $20 that is what Ricky Isom was sentenced to in February in CobbCounty, Georgia. I t was Isom's second conviction in two years, and state law imposes amandatory sentence. Even the judge pronouncing the sentence thinks it is cruel; Judge TomCauthorn expressed grave reservations before sentencing Isom and Douglas Rucks(convicted of selling 3.5 grams of cocaine in a separate but similar case). Judge Cauthorncalled the sentences 'Draconian.'Amendment IXThe enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny ordisparage others retained by the people.OTHER RIGHTS RETAINED BY THE PEOPLE: This amendment is so weak today thatI will ask not what infringements there are on it but rather what exercise of it exists at all?What law can you appeal to a court to find you not guilty of violating because the lawdenies a right retained by you?Amendment XThe powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it tothe States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.POWERS RESERVED TO THE STATES OR THE PEOPL E: This amendment is alsoweak, although it is not so nonexistent as the ninth amendment. But few states set their ownspeed limits or drinking age limits. Today, we mostly think of this country as the singular United States, rather than a collection of states. This concentration of power detacheslaws from the desires of people and even of states. House Resolution 4079 crops upagain here it uses financial incentives to get states to set specific penalties for certaincrimes. Making their own laws certainly must be considered a right of the states, and thisright is being infringed upon.Out of ten amendments, nine are under attack, most of them under multiple attacks ofdifferent natures, and some of them under a barrage. If this much of the Bill of Rights isthreatened, how can you be sure your rights are safe? A right has to be there when youneed it. Like insurance, you cannot afford to wait until you need it and then set aboutprocuring it or ensuring it is available. Assurance must b e made in advance.The bottom line here is that your rights are not safe. You do not know when one of yourrights will be violated. A number of rights protect accused persons, and you may think it isnot important to protect the rights of criminals. But if a right is not there for people accusedof crimes, it will not be there when you need it. With the Bill of Rights in the sad conditiondescribed above, nobody can be confident they will be able to exercise the rights to whichthey are justly entitled. To preserve our rights for ourselves in the future, we must defendthem for everybody today.

Market Foods Corporation in Ecuador Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Market Foods Corporation in Ecuador - Essay Example Eating habits and approach to food will be different in Singapore and Ecuador and hence the Market Food Corporation must account for those things while formulating management strategies for Ecuador. Even the same service needs different management styles and marketing strategies in different countries in order to succeed because of the difference in the culture. Only those entrepreneurs who study these differences will succeed in their overseas projects. Product, Price, Placement, and Promotion (4P’s of business/marketing) must be taken into consideration by Market Foods in their proposed hawker stall operations in Ecuador. Right product, at the right time, in the right place, with right promotional activities will always be successful in the market and Market Foods Corporation must formulate a well thought out strategy for Ecuador based on the above assumption. Management structure is also important for the success of international business. Locals must be given priority in all the international activities because of their immense knowledge about h the local market and culture. Promotional activities and advertisements for hawker stalls in Ecuador also must focus on the Ecuadorian culture rather than the global culture. â€Å"As the world shrinks, so marketing opportunities expand. Radical advances in communication and transportation bring markets closer-the skill lies in identifying the areas of greatest potential profit, and developing global strategies that still function effectively in meeting local needs† (International marketing review) We are living in a world of Globalization and Liberalization which tries to visualize the whole world as one and to bring the whole people/countries under the roof of one umbrella. Globalization has opened the doors widely open for business community as they can market their

Software Security and its Role on Cyber Security Research Paper

Software Security and its Role on Cyber Security - Research Paper Example The number of cyber crimes is growing exceptionally on an annual basis and because of this reason; the internet is becoming more and more unsafe. The level of hacker’s intellect is growing as he or she is gathering more knowledge and information about the art and science of hacking (Xu, Hu, & Zhang, 2013). The companies on the other hand, restricted their exposure to the vast universe of internet by inventing intranet. The intranet is an infrastructure that helps an organization in creating a network within the network of networks. The private network’s identity and access is restricted to employees only. The employees have to login with a specific and unique username and their activities are strictly monitored as well. The modern technique of intranet is also not working because the hackers have devised methods that can locate and identify the networks. Once the network is located then the hackers use the information to hack the central computer and therefore, the enti re network starts to play in the hands of evil geniuses. The era of antivirus is also coming to an end. The antivirus programs are famous for providing the hackers a plain ground. The viruses are nowadays programmed to alter the binary coding of the antivirus and in this way; the protector of the system becomes its worst enemy. The hackers managed to follow the technique of Aids virus. The virus does not cause any type of illness but kill the immune system of the human body. Consequently, the viruses of other diseases move in and finish the job. The intelligent hackers eliminate the defense system of the network and then, other harmful programs move in and render the entire network inoperable. The technical staff becomes helpless in front of the multiple attacks and therefore, has to purge all data in the network (Sukwong & Kim, 2011). The modern hackers and technical teams at various data centers of the world are suspected to be engaged in a never ending battle. The war is fought l ike a game of chess and whole game-plan is based on striking and counterstriking. In most number of cases, the objective of hackers is fulfilled. The hackers always like to cause hindrance in the operationality of the network and it is fulfilled with the help of causing sufficient doubt in the minds of technical teams. The technical teams cannot afford to take any threat lightly and therefore, if they believe that the game is getting out their hands then they have to shunt the network before finding a bug. The networks are insecure and this is a common belief. The sales of antivirus programs are declining and this is the depiction of decreasing public trust on leading names in the industry of internet security. Additionally, the latest internet browsers are programmed to detect any suspicious product or webpage. All of the viruses and other harmful programs are known to come from the internet in the global village of the 21st century. The best defense is prevention and therefore, th e modern programmers have decided to put a blockade in the way of viruses by planting a smaller and efficient antivirus program within the fabric of browsers (Singh, Moshchuk, Wang, & Lee, 2010). The users are notified as soon as the suspicious activity has been detected. The browsers are designed to block the potentially harmful events from happening until and unless the user allows them to take place. In this manner, the virtually nothing can go on without the

The three models of exchange rate determination

The three models of exchange rate determination Abstract This paper presents three models of exchange rate determination. Each models are based on the equilibrium of markets in the international economy. The equilibrium of goods market determine exchange rate according to purchasing power parity; the equilibrium of money market determine exchange rate according to monetary model; the equilibrium of asset markets determine exchange rate according to portfolio model. Introduction It is in the interest of a variety of parties to understand the determinants of exchange rates. For economists, it is for their intellectual and academic pursuit to uncover the economic mechanism determining exchange rates. Policymakers would like to understand the impacts and consequences of exchange rates to the policies and vice versa. Finance managers would like analyze the fundamental factors determining exchange rates and incorporate these factors in their financial or investment decision making. Speculators in foreign exchange market would like to know the direction of exchange rate movement aforehand to make profit. In the following, we explain three models of exchange rate determination, namely, the purchasing power parity(PPP), the monetary model and the portfolio balance theory. Purchasing Power Parity The theoretical assumption of Purchasing Power Parity starts from the Law of One Price. The Law of One Price in open economy states that, if the market is competitive, no transaction cost and no barriers of trade, then identical products in different countries should be sold at the same prices, adjusted by exchange rate, i.e. under the same currency denomination. Otherwise, there is arbitrage opportunity. In notation, pi =spi* (1) for pi = price of good i at home country, pi*= price of good i at foreign country, s = exchange rate For example, the price an ounce of gold quoted at London in GBP should be the same as an ounce of gold quoted at New York in USD times exchange rate of GBP/USD. Next, we consider a model with two countries. Both of them have the floating exchange rate-regimes and Law of One Price holds for all goods in the two counties. Then, the general price level of home country is should be the same as the general price level of foreign country, adjusted by exchange rate. In notation, P=sP* (2) for P= general price level at home country, P*= general price level at foreign country P and P*, the general price level is the weighted average of all prices of goods. So if (1) holds for all goods, (2) will holds. (2) is what we called the absolute Purchasing Power Parity (absolute PPP): the general price level of every country should be the same if adjusted to the same currency. In other words, the exchange rate should be determined by the relative price level of two countries. If you can use $1 of home currency to buy a basket of goods at home country, then the $1 converted to foreign currency should be able to buy the same basket of products in foreign country, i.e. they have the same purchasing power. We can interpret that PPP is a long-run equilibrium level of exchange rate that there is fundemental force of demand and supply in goods market to retain it. For example, assume that the domestic price level is higher than the foreign price level under the same currency measure, i.e. P > sP*. If goods are identical and there is transaction cost and barriers of trade, then consumers from domestic country will not buy local products. They will use their domestic currency to exchange to foreign currency to buy foreign products, which is cheaper. The force of supply and demand of currency will drives down exchange rate to depreciate. In turn, depreciation of exchange rate will lower the price of domestic products(under the same currency measure) and then the PPP equilibrium, P = sP* is retained. Yet the absolute PPP to be too strict, economists considers a weaker form, called the relative PPP. It states that percentage changes in price levels of two countries determine the percentage change in exchange rate. In notation, ΆP/P = Άs/s +ΆP*/P* (3) The relative PPP is a weaker form of absolute PPP because if absolute PPP holds true, the relative PPP holds true also but not vice versa. Moreover, change in price level is indeed the inflation rate. The relative PPP implies that exchange rate should be adjustedΆe/e to the difference between two countries inflation rates. For example, a country with hyperinflation should encounter substantial depreciation in its currency. Empirical Support The Purchasing Power Parity states that relative price level is a fundamental determinant of exchange rate. An empirical test would like to see whether there is such a relationship in historical data. The PPP hypothesis has be enormously and extensively tested empirically by economists. The extensive tests by economists found very little empirical support to PPP. Exchange rate and the relative price level are unrelated in short run and medium run. In the long run, results found that exchange rate would converge to the theoretical equilibrium value from PPP, but at a very slow rate. At the first glace, PPP seems to be a too strict hypothesis that its assumption is unlikely to hold. In reality, there is transaction cost and barriers of trade. The general price levels indeed include non-tradable goods and different countries have different components in their general price level. These deviations of the theoretical PPP will cause the domestic price level and foreign price level not converges, but retain at some deviated level. Literature Review Officer (1982) contains a detailed summary on the theoretical and empirical works on PPP at early stage. Rogoff (1996) provides a more update survey on PPP and their empirical tests. Taylor Taylor (2004) uses more complete data and more powerful econometric tests, as they describe, retain similarly result as previous scholars. Monetary model As exchange rate is the relative price of two currencies, it is reasonable to consider the supply and demand of money be an important determinant of exchange rates. Introduction of money supply and money demand, two very fundamental macroeconomic variables, into our models The monetary approach rests on the quantity theory of money in macroeconomics. Firstly, Money supply (Ms) is a quantity determined by the central bank. In the quantity theory, money is for the purpose of medium of exchange. Money demand of an economy is directly proportional to the general price level and also the quantity of real output. For example, if the general price level is doubled, then the economy would need double amount of money for their transactions. The same idea holds for quantity of real output. Then, Md = kPy (4) Where Md is money demand, P is the price level, y is the real output and k is the velocity of money. In equilibrium, Money supply must be equal money demand, and so: Ms = kPy (5) By rearranging, we have P= Ms/ky (6) By this form, we can interpret that given a level of real output of the economy and a given level of money supply determined by the central bank, the price level of the economy will be adjusted to Ms/ky. Let * denotes the foreign currency variables. We assume the quantity theory of money holds true to foreign country also. We have Ms*= k*P*y* (7) The second important assumption of the monetary approach is that PPP holds true. The exchange rate always attains its PPP equilibrium level, as in (2). In the monetary approach, we have three relationships of variables now: the quantity money of home country, quantity money of foreign country, and PPP. Combining there three relationships and rearranging the three equations, we have: Ms/ ky = S Ms*/ k*y* (8) The quantity theory of money and PPP are two building blocks of the monetary approach. The PPP tells us that at the long run equilibrium, the exchange rate should be equal to the ratio of home and foreign price level. The quantity theory of money marcoeconomics describes that price level of a country is related to money supply of central bank and real output of the economy. Combining them, the monetary approach concluded that exchange is determined by domestic and foreign money supply (Ms Ms*), domestic and foreign real output (y y*), and domestic and foreign velocity of money(k k*). An important implication of the monetary approach is that central banks money supply policy would have primary impact to exchange rate. Start with the domestic central bank suddenly increase the money supply by a substantial amount, with all other domestic and foreign variables keep unchanged. The quantity theory of money implies that the rise of money supply without increase in real output will drives up the domestic price level, which means inflation also. The increase in domestic price level will induce domestic people to buy more foreign products and cause the exchange rate to depreciate. This is the same equilibrating mechanism described in PPP. We may consider the magnitude of depreciation of currency by increase of domestic money supply. According to equation (x), exchange rate, s, is directly proportional to Ms. So in the monetary approach, a given percentage increase in money supply will leads to the same percentage of depreciation of currency. A natural consequence of the above analysis is to see if foreign money supply would leads to what kind change of exchange rate. From equation (x), we can see that foreign money supply Ms* comes into determining the exchange rate. If the foreign central bank increase money supply, the foreign currency would depreciate as by our previous analysis. Then, in turn, the domestic currency would appreciate relatively. On the other hand, we may consider the effect of an increase in real output on exchange rate in the monetary approach. Given a fixed level of money supply, real output increase will leads to lowering price level, as described in the quantity theory of money. Then, on the open economy side, the exchange rate must appreciate, making the local products more expensive, to preserve the PPP equilibrium. So we can conclude that a rise in real output(GDP) will leads to appreciation of the domestic currency, given other thing else constant. Empirical Evidence The monetary approach is largely based on PPP. Given the failure of PPP on empirical testing, it is not difficult to imagine that empirical test on the monetary model of exchange rates should found little support. Extensive tests have been carried out to examine the relationship between exchange rate vs. money supply and exchange rate vs. real output. As representative, Frenkel (1976) and Meese Rogoff (1983) shows little empirical support on the Monetary approach. Literature review Johnson (1977) portrays a model treatment of the monetary model of exchange rates. Frenkel (1976) and Meese Rogoff (1983) are representative empirical works on the monetary approach. Portfolio Balance Model In the monetary model, the global economy is simplified as having goods and money only, and money is the medium of exchange to buy domestic and foreign goods. Exchange rates are determined by the relative demand and supply of money, domestic and foreign. The portfolio balance model takes a further step from the monetary model that there are investment assets in the global economy for people to hold. People would consider holding money, domestic assets and foreign assets alternatively on their portfolio balance. Then the relative demand and supply of these investment assets would determine the exchange rate. The portfolio balance model assumes there are three kinds of assets for people to allocate their total wealth: Domestic money (M), domestic bond (B), and foreign bond (FB). Domestic money (M), pays no interest, is a riskless asset. In term of finance, the risk-free rate is zero in this simplified model. Domestic bond and foreign bond are risky assets that payout with, with interest rate rand r* respectively. Then the actual interest rate individual receive from foreign bond is sr*. The portfolio balance model of exchange rate makes further assumption in line with modern portfolio theory. Domestic bond and foreign bond are not perfect substitutes. Holding domestic and foreign bond together in the portfolio would reduce the unsystematic risk. So people would not simply hold the bond with higher yield only, but hold a portfolio of domestic and foreign bonds. Moreover, the individuals, being are risk-averse and so they would hold some portion of riskless asset, the money. The individuals have a total wealth of W would decide how to allocate them into money, domestic bond and foreign bond respectively based on his risk preference and the returns of different assets, as in modern portfolio theory. He would purchase more of one asset if the return of the asset increase, or if the return of the alternative assets decrease. In summary, Demand of money = M(r, sr*) is decreasing in r and sr* Demand of domestic bond = B(r, sr*) is increasing in r and decreasing in sr*. Demand of foreign bond = FB(r, sr*) is increasing in sr* and decreasing in r. Total wealth, the supply of various assets, would equal to the demand of various assets., such that W = M(r, sr*) + B(r, sr*) + BF(r, sr*) (9) It means that, in equilibrium, there would be some equilibrium value of r, r* and s to balance demand and supply. To focus on the role of exchange rate in this model, we may consider r and r* as given to be stable by the bond markets and only the exchange rate varies. The equation above can be simplified as: W = M(s) + B(s) + BF(s) (10) Then, there will be a value of s to equalize the demand of various assets to total wealth. In other words, the exchange rate is determined by the equilibrium across the money, domestic bond and foreign bond markets in this portfolio balance model. Implications and evidence of portfolio balance model One of the most important implications from the portfolio balance model is that current account surplus will be associated with depreciation of currency. Current account surplus must be associated with capital account deficit, which means that the country is a net purchaser of foreign assets. The demand of foreign bond increase and so exchange rate would depreciate for the equilibrium in asset markets to restore. However, as noted by Copeland (2008), the tests of portfolio balance model, is far from satisfactory. Literature review Several articles by Branson propelled the portfolio balance model, and include empirical evidence also. Branson (1983) provides a good account of summary. Conclusions We have reviewed three different models on exchange rates. The PPP, the most fundamental one, claims that price level is the fundamental determinant of exchange rates in the long run. The market force of goods arbitrage would push the exchange rate to the equilibrium level that balance the purchasing power of the different currency to the same level. The monetary model incorporates the classical quantity theory of money in marcoeconomics with purchasing power parity. It predicts that money supply, determined by the central bank, and real output are the determinants of exchange rate. The third theory, the portfolio balance model extends the monetary model from considering the money market to the markets of a number of assets. Individuals demand each type of assets and exchange rate is determined as the equilibrium price of various asset markets. All of the models we discussed are laid on fundamental economic theory and are conceptually sound. Unfortunately, economists found little direct empirical support to these models. We should not consider rejecting these three models because of the lack of empirical support. Firstly, these three models are conceptually fundamental and shape our thinking in exchange rates. They will be extremely useful when we extend our analysis with specifications in further detail and seek more specific implications in exchange rate. Secondly, these models portray the long-run equilibrium behavior of the exchange market. It is difficult to consider the volatile, second-to-second changing exchange rate market behavior would be consistent with these models. There may exists random shocks to the exchange rate market that consistently propel the exchange rate to move in a random style and so the long-run equilibrium of the models cannot be attained.

Mexican-Americans Fight for Equality in America Essay example -- Race

Mexican-Americans' Fight for Equality in America The United States has always been thought of as the the land of opportunity. Why is it that for years Mexican-Americans have been mistreated and discriminated against? There are millions of people that live in the US that are of Mexican descent. Throughout the Mexican-American history they have faced constant struggles to be recognized as equal citizens. The white man drove them from their own homes when they first settled in America. The Anglo settlers did not hold much if any respect for the Mexicans. The fight for their civil rights has been going on since the 1800s. It wasn't until the 1960s when the Chicanos were formed that affirmative action began to take place. The Americans settled all over the United States and in the 1820s began showing interest in the West because of trade with Asia. Certain leaders were sent out on missions' to "help" better the lives of the Indians and Mexicans. When the white settlers first came to West they viewed the Indians and Mexicans as savages. They did not think of them as human because their lifestyle was unsuitable, or rather different then their own. The only way that they could tolerate them was to try and change their way of living. They attempted to convert them into the Christian religion, to change the way they ate, what they ate, how they ate it, the way they dressed, teach them English, etc. "The object of the missions is to convert as many of the wild Indians as possible, and to train them up within the walls of the establishment in the exercise of a good life, and of some trade, so that they may be able to provide for themselves and become useful members of civilized society."1 The Mexicans did not like nor we... ...ecause the white people treated the Mexicans so unfairly the Mexicans united against them and formed a unity that has lasted until today. In Michelle's paper she recaps the history of Mexicans in the United States that was not completely dealt with in either the website or the movie. Michelle points out that the Latin@s history is essential to understanding the Mexicans experience. She also wrote of the Mexican's el movemiento and how the website and movie brought about different accounts of this momentous event. In reading different papers about the Mexican-Amercican experience it expanded not only my knowledge but my opinion too. Nikki and Michelle brought up some interesting points, ideas, and thoughts on the Mexican's life in the United States. Through all my research on mexican's I have gained a better understanding of the Mexican's struggle.

Domino’s Pizza, Inc

Domino's Pizza, Inc. is an international pizza delivery corporation headquartered in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1960, Domino’s Pizza is the second-largest pizza chain in the United States. In 1960, Tom Monaghan and his brother, James, purchased DomiNick's, a small pizza store in Ypsilanti, Michigan. The deal was secured by a $75 down payment and the brothers borrowed $500 to pay for the store. Eight months later, James traded his half of the business to Tom for a used Volkswagen Beetle. As sole owner of the company, Tom Monaghan renamed the business Domino's Pizza, Inc. in 1965. In 1967, the first Domino's Pizza franchise store opened in Ypsilanti. Tom Monaghan original goal was to open three pizza delivery stores. That’s why there are three dots on Domino’s logo. Domino’s Pizza continued to grow and in 1978 opened its 200th store. Tom Monaghan launched Domino's Pizza Malaysia in September 1997. Franchising in Malaysia is still in the early stages while fast foods dominate the franchising sector with an estimated annual sales exceeding RM1. 3 billion. With the people’s growing appetite for fast food, the market outlook is good. The rapid growth of the fast-food industry brings both benefits and threats to our society. Normally, fast food restaurant is offering fried chickens, burgers, sandwiches or pizzas. Further more, there are only a few pizza chains in Malaysia like Domino’s Pizza, Pizza Hut and Shakey’s Pizza. Today, Domino’s Pizza is having more than 8,500 stores at all around the world and making a profit of USD35 billion per year. Domino's Pizza is the recognized world leader in pizza delivery operating a network of company-owned and franchise-owned stores in the United States and international markets. Domino's Pizza's vision illustrates a company of exceptional people on a mission to be the best pizza delivery company in the world.

Titanic Film Analysis Essay - 894 Words

Farjana Akter Akter 1 Pro: John Remarek Language and Composition 12 December 2017 The Titanic the ship destiny, a ship of love and a ship of division. what would you say about the film called Titanic Does love a main reason between Jack and Rose? That was not true. The main point of the story was to show the reader about status and money. According to a director of movie named, Mr. James Cameron was trying to show his film as the real story. Because at the end of the movie, there was a woman named Mrs, Rose Dawson†¦show more content†¦Maybe, it was the first time for him to have dinner with them. And also everyone was asking questions to him. But he doesn’t bother about this things because it’s very common for him he knows that. Jack says, this is his luck and after he wanted be a good swimmer. It doesn’t matter what is people’s class because in our real life we see that many lower class people they gain success in their life. This is one kind of social discrimination for him. And in dinning hall it was very clear how differently the f irst and third classes were. Cal Hockley put the Diamond necklace in Jack’s pocket and he was arrested for it. Here we see that Cal gave Diamond necklace to Rose it was symbol of his love for her. However, when he was clear about Rose’s love for Jack so that he did it. Actually, here it is proved that Jack was lower class family that’s why he doesn’t have any power that Cal had. However, here also proved that property, power is nothing to above the love. Rose doesn’t believe that he did like that and she supported him because of her love for Jack. Here I find real love between Jack and Rose. Rose says,I am not going on the boat. But Jack says no you have to go.† Love is not a small word it looks like, but it is huge. That is what I find in titanic. Here it is proved that Rose and Jack, they didn’tcare about elite poor. 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