Statistics essays

Statistics essays Statistics is a system where you can get to the bottom of a variety of composite questions in the statistics class. Statistics has a group of rules that make problems find the solutions that are correct. The upcoming project will be answer with the formulas learned at stats class. Descriptive statistics is used to present a variety of information, which information can either be qualitative or quantitative. To present the information in an organize matter we used a set of charts and/or graphs to understand better our results. To start the task I sampled 36 people, 22 males and 14 females. Confidence interval is a set of range, minimum and maximum, to give an output from a previous sample. The confidence interval is used to determine numbers that will help you predict the result. The next optimal numbers are an average using the 36 people we used for this project to get more precise numbers and help us with our project. The numbers are going to help us predict the outcome of the workers performance and to see if the computer is a useful tool this will help us get a more precise numbers in order to complete our project. The sample consists of 36 people currently working at the company. This group is going to help me develop a project were many statistical tools that are utilized to get proper stimulations. It consisted 14 females and 22 males. Using this information I will determine to a 95 certainty or percentage that the male population is .61 2(.08) and for females .39 2(.08). This represents the gender ratio. Histogram for age is unimodal and it is non-symmetric. Average age is in the range in 39.06. The median is 36, the mode, 30. The standard deviation, which means the variance between ages, is 14.03. The sample variance, also refers to the sum of the variances is 196.74. The range lies between the points of a minimum of 18 and a maximum of 65. I am 95% sure that the average age lies between the follo...

Questions to Ask in a Grad School Admissions Interview

Questions to Ask in a Grad School Admissions Interview An invitation to interview at the graduate program of your choice is an amazing opportunity to let the graduate committee get to know you - but the purpose of the grad school admissions interview is also for you to learn about the graduate program. All too often applicants forget that they too are conducting an interview. Take advantage of the opportunity an admissions interview offers you good questions that will gather the information that you need to determine if this is the right program for you. Remember that you are interviewing the graduate program - you must choose the program that is right for you.   Asking good questions not only tells you what you need to know about a graduate program, but it tells the admissions committee that you are serious. Good, genuine, questions can impress admissions committees. Questions to Ask During a Graduate Admissions Interview What characteristics are specific to this program and distinguish it from competitors? (Be sure to refer to specific characteristics)Where are recent alumni employed? What do most students do after graduation?What types of financial aid are offered? What criteria are used for choosing recipients?Are there any scholarships or fellowships available? How do I apply?Are there teaching opportunities, such as teaching assistantships and adjunct positions?Do most students publish an article or present a paper before graduation?What applied experiences are included in the program (e.g., internships)? Ask for examples of internship placements.What is the relative importance of admissions test scores, undergraduate grades, recommendations, admissions essays, experience, and other requirements?Does the department prefer applicants immediately out of undergraduate programs or do they prefer applicants with work experience? If they prefer or require experience, what kind of experience are they lo oking for? How are mentoring and advising relationships established? Are advisors assigned?How long do most students take to graduate? How many years of coursework? How long do most students take to complete their dissertations?Do most students live near campus? What is it like to live in this area as a graduate student?How closely do students work with faculty? Is it common for students and faculty to publish together?How long does the average student take to complete a dissertation, roughly?How is the dissertation process structured? Are committee members assigned?

What Is Buddhism Is It A Philosophy Or Religion Essay

What Is Buddhism Is It A Philosophy Or Religion - Essay Example This proliferation contributes to the emergence of different cultures while maintaining basic beliefs based on Buddha’s teachings. Studies indicate that the term Buddhism has its origin from the West as opposed to the practitioners. The different cultures provide a variety of interpretations of Buddhist teachings leading to vigorous debate on the practice. This necessitates the goal of this paper, which seeks to explore Buddhism from its philosophical and religious perspectives. As a religion, Buddhism involves basic religious aspects with regard to a godhead, creation theory, and faith. The godhead is manifested in Buddha, an Indian prince renowned for his wisdom while faith develops from the dependence on divine authority. Faith entails believing and upholding Buddha’s teachings. Buddhism indicates that there is no deity involved in creation of the world nor was there a beginning in the universe. In essence, there only exists a transformation of matter to energy in an endless cycle of coming to being while the concept of beginnings according to Buddhists exists only in the realm of illusion. These elements are borrowed from the predominant Brahmanical traditions that were the major religious practice in ancient India. It is important to note that Buddhism emerged from the conservative social force in ancient India having rejected some aspects of the dominating religion (Oslon 3). Buddhism principles are indicated as realistic and based on the reality of life, which can be seen. It focuses on real issues of light and a better society for all, which creates a niche in the world. The realistic nature of the tradition reveals dedication to a solitary life characterised by meditation and self-preservation. As such, Buddhism serves the spiritual needs of its followers by teaching how to experience freedom of the soul through meditation. Meditation allows one to find peace and enjoy a personal connection with the self, which serves to liberate needless suffering. Meditation in Buddhism is crucial undertaking geared towards the induction of a stable mental condition and equilibrium, as well as tranquillity. It exists in two forms; one where it is meant to develop mental concentration that leads to highest mystic states, where the mystic states have nothing to do with reality, truth, or nirvana, but are not purely Buddhist. Buddhist mediation facilitates discernment of the essence of things leading to comprehensive liberation of the mind and subsequent disclosure of the truth (Clark 378). It builds on mindfulness, awareness, vigilance, and observation, where it does not attempt to escape from reality, but is intertwined with daily life. This is in line with the body, feelings, the mind, and moral, as well as intellectual subjects. As a religion, Buddhism teaches tolerance that allows the existence of various spiritual forms under its benign protection. This facilitates diversity that meets challenges posed by other religious and ph ilosophical systems including science and technology. It is for this reason that Buddhism continues to flourish as a multi-faceted religious system, with its teaching being readily accepted in the world. When compared to other religious systems in the world, Buddhism reveals significant philosophical aspects that demand assessment as they are. Studies suggests that Buddhism is a metaphysic seeking to manifest a religion as opposed to other religious systems, which to seek the metaphysic aspect. The Buddha’s teachings (Dharma) are geared to evoke critical thinking among followers seeking enlightenment. In this light, Dharma consists of narratives with hidden meanings and vast symbolism of the intended message. This serves to encourage intellectual involvement to

INTB3000 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

INTB3000 - Essay Example lobal, acting local and thinking local, acting global, need to exist side by side because contrary to the general perception that building a brand sells it, the actual key to success is local passion for the brand coupled with a feeling of local pride and ownership. Examples of thinking global, acting local: 1. Retaining a clearly focused target product, so that the nature of the product was clear in the customer’s mind – Vicks was a rub for colds 2. Not growing complacent with the 20% growth that made Vicks no: 1 in India, but growing the market and benchmarking against the best in the world 2. Using an efficient, low cost local distribution system and 3. Using local ayurvedic medicinal products to prepare additional Vicks preparations apart from the rub for colds. Thinking local, acting global: 1. The global strategy was to increase advertising during the winter months, but Vicks Vaporub stepped up its advertising in the monsoon months, when local conditions caused more colds. 2. Positioning the 5 gm tin for the middle class and pricing a package of 4 such tins lower than a 19 gm jar, because it was specifically targeted at the middle class. Das and Vicks Vaporub were so successful in India because they were able to understand their consumers and act to satisfy their needs. They were able to use the existing, low cost distribution networks perfected by traders to avoid excessive costs along the supply chain. When chemists and pharmacists across the nation came together to boycott Vicks, the Company changed its registration from Western to Indian medicine to extend this distribution networks to food shops and local grocers, thus avoiding the strike altogether. 1. Being receptive to regional variations, i.e, suiting the product to fit opportunities available in the local market; for example using the monsoon as an opportunity to step up advertising during summer months. In a country like Russia, the economy was in a state of transition from a

Gender Differences in the Use of Technology Essay Example for Free

Gender Differences in the Use of Technology Essay At the center of 21st century culture is computer technology which presence and use just decades ago, were limited for the government and some institutions. Today, computer technology steps out from such isolation pervading all institutions, industries, commerce and other areas of life at what appears to be logarithmic speed, making its mastery or at least working knowledge an essential requisite if one is to keep pace with time. The ubiquity of technology, continuous rise in the demands for technologically-advanced workforce combined with the application of basic economic principles make one think whether the study on gender differences as it relates to technology is really a matter worthy of anyone’s attention. Statistics say it is. Generally, in a technological workplace, women are still underrepresented: only five percent of computer programmers, ten percent of system analysts and ten percent of electronic technicians are females (Statistics: Women in Technology, 2008). In major companies in Silicon Valley, only 5-6% is led by females (Statistics: Women in Technology, 2008). There has been a decline in the number of females pursuing careers related to science and technology. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, the number of women who earned a bachelor’s degree in computer science has decreased from 37% to 28. 4% from 1984 to 1995 (Statistics: Women in Technology, 2008). Female students who took the advanced placement computer examination comprised only 17% (Statistics: Women in Technology, 2008). From these statistics, one may speculate that females’ future career choices still fall along traditional paths. This was confirmed by a study done by Lupart and Cannon (2002) on students’ perceptions on desirable career characteristics and career choices. With the rising demand for high-tech jobs (Statistics: Women and Technology, 2008), knowledge and use of technology become an essential condition to improve women’s participation in the workforce and to enable them to pursue higher status and better-paying jobs in the future. However, the general belief is that not only are women underrepresented in the technology-related industry; they are also considered to be less interested, less confident and less skilled in this area. These three factors affect their usage of technology. Still, underneath these factors, women’s computer usage can be traced on socialization and upbringing. Boys and girls do not play the same games during childhood. While boys are usually made to play video games or games that promote problem-solving, hands-on skills and spatial-relationship skills, girls play with dolls, which tend to develop their value of relationships (Milgram, 2007). Problem-solving, hands-on and spatial-relationship skills are critical to the study of computer and technology-related subjects. As a result of this discrepancy in development, males become more interested in technology and become better-equipped with the necessary skills as they reach adulthood (Milgram, 2007). The males’ generally higher interest in technology, however, does not affect the possibility of improving females’ perception and attitude towards technology. The effect of ubiquitous computing on gender differences was examined in a study done in 2006. Here, the participants were given access 24-hour access to a laptop. Gender differences were observed in behavioral attitude towards future use of computers before the laptop program. Prior to the laptop program, males were more inclined to use computers. This changed after the laptop program. No significant difference was observed in the attitude towards the use of computers after the program (Kay, 2006). Before the program, males were observed to be more skillful in computer abilities compared to females. No significant difference was observed in computer abilities between males and females after the program, except for the skill in programming (Kay, 2006). In central Georgia middle school, the study on 8th grade students showed a statistically significant difference between achievements of males and females. In this experiment, the participants were instructed and given an exam both written and applied on two modules, information and broadcasting. A greater improvement was seen in females for the information module while the males showed greater improvement in the broadcasting module. This study partially debunks earlier findings that males generally show higher achievements compared to males, in the study of computer technology (Hale, 2005). These studies suggest that females’ do not have an inherently unfavorable computer skill, interest, and attitude which affect computer use. Provided with the right tools and knowledge, females may do as well or even better than males (Milgram, 2007). The comparatively lower use of technology by females can be attributed to the differences in perceptions on technology between genders. While the females see technology through its social function, the males’ perspective is more focused on the hardware itself (Brunner, 1997). Males, therefore, are more likely to study more on the intricacies and technicalities of the use of technology compared to females which in effect allows them to maximize its use. Meanwhile, the females’ perspective of technology limits their use to only a number of functions.. According to Milgram (2007), â€Å"[females] are much less likely to retain interest if they feel they are incapable of mastering the material. † Also, males tend to exaggerate their accomplishments while females tend to feel less comfortable even when they do well in tests (Milgram, 2007). The females’ initial lack of skill in technology affects their confidence and perception towards its use. However, like interest and attitude, these may be changed upon exposure. Nicolino, et. al. (2006) measured the confidence gain of male and female respondents in the frequency of use of computers at home and at work. No significant difference in computer use was observed between males and females. Significant differences were observed in the only in the applications used by the two genders. The possible change in perceptions and confidence which may affect usage is evidenced by the study by Wong and Hanafi in 2007. In this study, the attitudes of male and female student teachers in Malaysia towards exposure and use of Information Technology were measured in terms of usefulness, confidence and aversion. No significant differences were seen between the two genders were observed during the pre- and post IT course. Both genders showed improvement in their appreciation of IT usage after the IT course. Females exhibited greater confidence in IT usage after the course compared to their male counterparts (Wong and Hanafi, 2007). Given the males’ higher degree of confidence towards technology, the question now is whether such confidence really translates to increased use of technology. In a study on some 6,800 fourth and eighth grade students, it was reported that males significantly increase their use of technology with age while no such significant increase was seen in females (Barker and Aspray, 2006). It has been established that the males have a more positive attitude and higher degree of confidence towards technology. These, however, are not solely gender-based but more importantly, based on their differences in upbringing, with males having more background in problem-solving and spatial-relationship. Based on the general principles derived from studies on gender-gap in technology, strategies can be employed to address such gap, improve computer attitude, increase computer use and create a culture where everyone can participate and take advantage of the benefits of technology, regardless of gender. Milgram (2007) lists some of such strategies targeting the middle school where attitudes in computer use start to emerge. These strategies include the creation of same-sex groups in classrooms, the integrated and meaningful use of technology, the improvement of teachers’ computer skills, the use of gender neutral softwares, simulation games for all genders, and the discouragement of using technology and computers as a reward. Common among these strategies is their focus on building the confidence of females who often have less experience than males. Simulation games, for example, ensure that not only males are given the opportunity to develop problem-solving and spatial relationship skills. Simulation games also promote hands-on proficiency which is necessary in developing technological skills and use. The creation of same-sex groups in classrooms and the discouragement of using technology and computers as reward minimize the males’ aggressive, assertive and self-assured behavior which stem from their confidence in their skills. In sum, it is by simulating the environment that contributed to the development of males’ skills that the gender gap in the use of technology can be significantly reduced. The fact that females respond to technology more positively if given the right building blocks, as shown by previous studies support this. Works Cited Barker LJ and Aspray W. (2006). The state of research on girls and IT. In J. M. Cohoon and W Aspray (eds. ), Women and information technology (pp. 3-54). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Brunner C. (1997). Technology and gender: Differences in masculine and feminine views. NASSP Bulletin, 81(592), 46-51. Hale, KV. (2005). Gender differences in computer technology achievement. Meridian, 8(1). Kay R. (2006). Addressing gender differences in computer ability, attitudes and use: The laptop effect. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(2), 187-211. Lupart J and Cannon E. Computers and career choices: gender differences in grades 7 and 10 students. Gender, Technology and Development, 6(2), 233-248. Milgram D. (2007). Gender differences in learning style specific to science, technology, engineering and math. SelfGrowth. com. Retrieved 27 April 2008 from http://www. selfgrowth. com/articles/Gender_Differences_in_Learning_Style_Specific_to_Science_Technology_Engineering_and_Math_STEM. html. Nicolino, P. , Fitzgerald, B. , Maser, K. Morote, E. (2006). Gender Differences in Confidence about Using Technology: An Introductory Course. In C. Crawford et al. (Eds. ), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference 2006 (pp. 3544-3549). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Statistics: Women in Technology. (2008). DeVry University Website. Retrieved 27 April 2008 from http://www. phx. devry. edu/outreach/her_world_stats. asp. Wong, S. L. , Hanafi, A. (2007). Gender Differences in Attitudes towards

Like Father Like Son Essays -- Character Analysis, Telemachus, Odysseu

THESIS STATEMENT Throughout the epic the Odyssey the theme like father like son is demonstrated through Telemachus following in his father’s (Odysseus) footsteps. PURPOSE STATEMENT It is evident that through extensive research on the Odyssey, Telemachus evolves into a character similar to his father Odysseus in this epic. INTRODUCTION Imagine ten grueling years of constant bloodbath at war. After all that horror facing journeying on vicious waters: battling a sea monster, traveling to the underworld, and angry gods attempting to wreak havoc everywhere you go. This is all on a quest to reunite with your loved ones. A brave Greek warrior–Odysseus–encounters all these circumstances. His son yearns for him to return home. This son of his is in a nervous state. He has no father figure in his life and is unable to protect his mother in their precarious situation. The Odyssey tells the thrilling tale of the clever Greek hero Odysseus. He has many terrifying adventures on his long awaited return to his kingdom, Ithaca. In this epic Odysseus’ son Telemachus becomes the man his father is and demonstrates personality traits Odysseus possesses. Telemachus must overcome his fear to undertake journeys in order to reunite his family. Odysseus and Telemachus together share a love and appreciation for Penelope. They both began as impulsive men and must learn patience in panicky situations later on. â€Å"He is like his father Odysseus, in that he is loyal and disgusted by evil. He also, like his father, is willing to go fight for his freedom.† (Pope 45) Telemachus is being described in comparison to Odysseus – they are equally dedicated in life to Penelope and have a great will to conquer obstacles in their life to reunite with each other. ... ...e was unsure about taking his father’s place. Odysseus learns to act wisely and not impulsively through his adventures. â€Å"All his past training in patience, wariness and self-control is needed now to help him play his part†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Walker 76). From past obstacles Odysseus was required to overcome on his trip home to Ithaca he was grown from acting out impulsively to thinking out strategies before had for attacks and battles. CONCLUSION In Homer’s the Odyssey the theme like father like son is demonstrated. Telemachus becomes the man his father (Odysseus) is through acquiring personality traits that he has and evolving in a brave and courageous character, such as his father was. Odysseus and Telemachus both go on journeys to reunite their families; they both have a great love and appreciation for Penelope and transition from being impatient and impulsive to patience.

A Game of Thrones Chapter Sixty

Jon Are you well, Snow?† Lord Mormont asked, scowling. â€Å"Well,† his raven squawked. â€Å"Well.† â€Å"I am, my lord,† Jon lied . . . loudly, as if that could make it true. â€Å"And you?† Mormont frowned. â€Å"A dead man tried to kill me. How well could I be?† He scratched under his chin. His shaggy grey beard had been singed in the fire, and he'd hacked it off. The pale stubble of his new whiskers made him look old, disreputable, and grumpy. â€Å"You do not look well. How is your hand?† â€Å"Healing.† Jon flexed his bandaged fingers to show him. He had burned himself more badly than he knew throwing the flaming drapes, and his right hand was swathed in silk halfway to the elbow. At the time he'd felt nothing; the agony had come after. His cracked red skin oozed fluid, and fearsome blood blisters rose between his fingers, big as roaches. â€Å"The maester says I'll have scars, but otherwise the hand should be as good as it was before.† â€Å"A scarred hand is nothing. On the Wall, you'll be wearing gloves often as not.† â€Å"As you say, my lord.† It was not the thought of scars that troubled Jon; it was the rest of it. Maester Aemon had given him milk of the poppy, yet even so, the pain had been hideous. At first it had felt as if his hand were still aflame, burning day and night. Only plunging it into basins of snow and shaved ice gave any relief at all. Jon thanked the gods that no one but Ghost saw him writhing on his bed, whimpering from the pain. And when at last he did sleep, he dreamt, and that was even worse. In the dream, the corpse he fought had blue eyes, black hands, and his father's face, but he dared not tell Mormont that. â€Å"Dywen and Hake returned last night,† the Old Bear said. â€Å"They found no sign of your uncle, no more than the others did.† â€Å"I know.† Jon had dragged himself to the common hall to sup with his friends, and the failure of the rangers' search had been all the men had been talking of. â€Å"You know,† Mormont grumbled. â€Å"How is it that everyone knows everything around here?† He did not seem to expect an answer. â€Å"It would seem there were only the two of . . . of those creatures, whatever they were, I will not call them men. And thank the gods for that. Any more and . . . well, that doesn't bear thinking of. There will be more, though. I can feel it in these old bones of mine, and Maester Aemon agrees. The cold winds are rising. Summer is at an end, and a winter is coming such as this world has never seen.† Winter is coming. The Stark words had never sounded so grim or ominous to Jon as they did now. â€Å"My lord,† he asked hesitantly, â€Å"it's said there was a bird last night . . . â€Å" â€Å"There was. What of it?† â€Å"I had hoped for some word of my father.† â€Å"Father,† taunted the old raven, bobbing its head as it walked across Mormont's shoulders. â€Å"Father.† The Lord Commander reached up to pinch its beak shut, but the raven hopped up on his head, fluttered its wings, and flew across the chamber to light above a window. â€Å"Grief and noise,† Mormont grumbled. â€Å"That's all they're good for, ravens. Why I put up with that pestilential bird . . . if there was news of Lord Eddard, don't you think I would have sent for you? Bastard or no, you're still his blood. The message concerned Ser Barristan Selmy. It seems he's been removed from the Kingsguard. They gave his place to that black dog Clegane, and now Selmy's wanted for treason. The fools sent some watchmen to seize him, but he slew two of them and escaped.† Mormont snorted, leaving no doubt of his view of men who'd send gold cloaks against a knight as renowed as Barristan the Bold. â€Å"We have white shadows in the woods and unquiet dead stalking our halls, and a boy sits the Iron Throne,† he said in disgust. The raven laughed shrilly. â€Å"Boy, boy, boy, boy.† Ser Barristan had been the Old Bear's best hope, Jon remembered; if he had fallen, what chance was there that Mormont's letter would be heeded? He curled his hand into a fist. Pain shot through his burned fingers. â€Å"What of my sisters?† â€Å"The message made no mention of Lord Eddard or the girls.† He gave an irritated shrug. â€Å"Perhaps they never got my letter. Aemon sent two copies, with his best birds, but who can say? More like, Pycelle did not deign to reply. It would not be the first time, nor the last. I fear we count for less than nothing in King's Landing. They tell us what they want us to know, and that's little enough.† And you tell me what you want me to know, and that's less, Jon thought resentfully. His brother Robb had called the banners and ridden south to war, yet no word of that had been breathed to him . . . save by Samwell Tarly, who'd read the letter to Maester Aemon and whispered its contents to Jon that night in secret, all the time saying how he shouldn't. Doubtless they thought his brother's war was none of his concern. It troubled him more than he could say. Robb was marching and he was not. No matter how often Jon told himself that his place was here now, with his new brothers on the Wall, he still felt craven. â€Å"Corn,† the raven was crying. â€Å"Corn, corn.† â€Å"Oh, be quiet,† the Old Bear told it. â€Å"Snow, how soon does Maester Aemon say you'll have use of that hand back?† â€Å"Soon,† Jon replied. â€Å"Good.† On the table between them, Lord Mormont laid a large sword in a black metal scabbard banded with silver. â€Å"Here. You'll be ready for this, then.† The raven flapped down and landed on the table, strutting toward the sword, head cocked curiously. Jon hesitated. He had no inkling what this meant. â€Å"My lord?† â€Å"The fire melted the silver off the pommel and burnt the crossguard and grip. Well, dry leather and old wood, what could you expect? The blade, now . . . you'd need a fire a hundred times as hot to harm the blade.† Mormont shoved the scabbard across the rough oak planks. â€Å"I had the rest made anew. Take it.† â€Å"Take it,† echoed his raven, preening. â€Å"Take it, take it.† Awkwardly, Jon took the sword in hand. His left hand; his bandaged right was still too raw and clumsy. Carefully he pulled it from its scabbard and raised it level with his eyes. The pommel was a hunk of pale stone weighted with lead to balance the long blade. It had been carved into the likeness of a snarling wolf's head, with chips of garnet set into the eyes. The grip was virgin leather, soft and black, as yet unstained by sweat or blood. The blade itself was a good half foot longer than those Jon was used to, tapered to thrust as well as slash, with three fullers deeply incised in the metal. Where Ice was a true two-handed greatsword, this was a hand-and-a-halfer, sometimes named a â€Å"bastard sword.† Yet the wolf sword actually seemed lighter than the blades he had wielded before. When Jon turned it sideways, he could see the ripples in the dark steel where the metal had been folded back on itself again and again. â€Å"This is Valyrian steel, my lord,† he said wonderingly. His father had let him handle Ice often enough; he knew the look, the feel. â€Å"It is,† the Old Bear told him. â€Å"It was my father's sword, and his father's before him. The Mormonts have carried it for five centuries. I wielded it in my day and passed it on to my son when I took the black.† He is giving me his son's sword. Jon could scarcely believe it. The blade was exquisitely balanced. The edges glimmered faintly as they kissed the light. â€Å"Your son—† â€Å"My son brought dishonor to House Mormont, but at least he had the grace to leave the sword behind when he fled. My sister returned it to my keeping, but the very sight of it reminded me of Jorah's shame, so I put it aside and thought no more of it until we found it in the ashes of my bedchamber. The original pommel was a bear's head, silver, yet so worn its features were all but indistinguishable. For you, I thought a white wolf more apt. One of our builders is a fair stonecarver.† When Jon had been Bran's age, he had dreamed of doing great deeds, as boys always did. The details of his feats changed with every dreaming, but quite often he imagined saving his father's life. Afterward Lord Eddard would declare that Jon had proved himself a true Stark, and place Ice in his hand. Even then he had known it was only a child's folly; no bastard could ever hope to wield a father's sword. Even the memory shamed him. What kind of man stole his own brother's birthright? I have no right to this, he thought, no more than to Ice. He twitched his burned fingers, feeling a throb of pain deep under the skin. â€Å"My lord, you honor me, but—† â€Å"Spare me your but's, boy,† Lord Mormont interrupted. â€Å"I would not be sitting here were it not for you and that beast of yours. You fought bravely . . . and more to the point, you thought quickly. Fire! Yes, damn it. We ought to have known. We ought to have remembered. The Long Night has come before. Oh, eight thousand years is a good while, to be sure . . . yet if the Night's Watch does not remember, who will?† â€Å"Who will,† chimed the talkative raven. â€Å"Who will.† Truly, the gods had heard Jon's prayer that night; the fire had caught in the dead man's clothing and consumed him as if his flesh were candle wax and his bones old dry wood. Jon had only to close his eyes to see the thing staggering across the solar, crashing against the furniture and flailing at the flames. It was the face that haunted him most; surrounded by a nimbus of fire, hair blazing like straw, the dead flesh melting away and sloughing off its skull to reveal the gleam of bone beneath. Whatever demonic force moved Othor had been driven out by the flames; the twisted thing they had found in the ashes had been no more than cooked meat and charred bone. Yet in his nightmare he faced it again . . . and this time the burning corpse wore Lord Eddard's features. It was his father's skin that burst and blackened, his father's eyes that ran liquid down his cheeks like jellied tears. Jon did not understand why that should be or what it might mean, but it frightened him more than he could say. â€Å"A sword's small payment for a life,† Mormont concluded. â€Å"Take it, I'll hear no more of it, is that understood?† â€Å"Yes, my lord.† The soft leather gave beneath Jon's fingers, as if the sword were molding itself to his grip already. He knew he should be honored, and he was, and yet . . . He is not my father. The thought leapt unbidden to Jon's mind. Lord Eddard Stark is my father. I will not forget him, no matter how many swords they give me. Yet he could scarcely tell Lord Mormont that it was another man's sword he dreamt of . . . â€Å"I want no courtesies either,† Mormont said, â€Å"so thank me no thanks. Honor the steel with deeds, not words.† Jon nodded. â€Å"Does it have a name, my lord?† â€Å"It did, once. Longclaw, it was called.† â€Å"Claw,† the raven cried. â€Å"Claw.† â€Å"Longclaw is an apt name.† Jon tried a practice cut. He was clumsy and uncomfortable with his left hand, yet even so the steel seemed to flow through the air, as if it had a will of its own. â€Å"Wolves have claws, as much as bears.† The Old Bear seemed pleased by that. â€Å"I suppose they do. You'll want to wear that over the shoulder, I imagine. It's too long for the hip, at least until you've put on a few inches. And you'll need to work at your two-handed strikes as well. Ser Endrew can show you some moves, when your burns have healed.† â€Å"Ser Endrew?† Jon did not know the name. â€Å"Ser Endrew Tarth, a good man. He's on his way from the ShadowTower to assume the duties of master-at-arms. Ser Alliser Thorne left yestermorn for Eastwatch-by-the-Sea.† Jon lowered the sword. â€Å"Why?† he said, stupidly. Mormont snorted. â€Å"Because I sent him, why do you think? He's bringing the hand your Ghost tore off the end of Jafer Flowers's wrist. I have commanded him to take ship to King's Landing and lay it before this boy king. That should get young Joffrey's attention, I'd think . . . and Ser Alliser's a knight, highborn, anointed, with old friends at court, altogether harder to ignore than a glorified crow.† â€Å"Crow.† Jon thought the raven sounded faintly indignant. â€Å"As well,† the Lord Commander continued, ignoring the bird's protest, â€Å"it puts a thousand leagues twixt him and you without it seeming a rebuke.† He jabbed a finger up at Jon's face. â€Å"And don't think this means I approve of that nonsense in the common hall. Valor makes up for a fair amount of folly, but you're not a boy anymore, however many years you've seen. That's a man's sword you have there, and it will take a man to wield her. I'll expect you to act the part, henceforth.† â€Å"Yes, my lord.† Jon slid the sword back into the silver-banded scabbard. If not the blade he would have chosen, it was nonetheless a noble gift, and freeing him from Alliser Thorne's malignance was nobler still. The Old Bear scratched at his chin. â€Å"I had forgotten how much a new beard itches,† he said. â€Å"Well, no help for that. Is that hand of yours healed enough to resume your duties?† â€Å"Yes, my lord.† â€Å"Good. The night will be cold, I'll want hot spice wine. Find me a flagon of red, not too sour, and don't skimp on the spices. And tell Hobb that if he sends me boiled mutton again I'm like to boil him. That last haunch was grey. Even the bird wouldn't touch it.† He stroked the raven's head with his thumb, and the bird made a contented quorking sound. â€Å"Away with you. I've work to do.† The guards smiled at him from their niches as he wound his way down the turret stair, carrying the sword in his good hand. â€Å"Sweet steel,† one man said. â€Å"You earned that, Snow,† another told him. Jon made himself smile back at them, but his heart was not in it. He knew he should be pleased, yet he did not feel it. His hand ached, and the taste of anger was in his mouth, though he could not have said who he was angry with or why. A half dozen of his friends were lurking outside when he left the King's Tower, where Lord Commander Mormont now made his residence. They'd hung a target on the granary doors, so they could seem to be honing their skills as archers, but he knew lurkers when he saw them. No sooner did he emerge than Pyp called out, â€Å"Well, come about, let's have a look.† â€Å"At what?† Jon said. Toad sidled close. â€Å"Your rosy butt cheeks, what else?† â€Å"The sword,† Grenn stated. â€Å"We want to see the sword.† Jon raked them with an accusing look. â€Å"You knew.† Pyp grinned. â€Å"We're not all as dumb as Grenn.† â€Å"You are so,† insisted Grenn. â€Å"You're dumber.† Halder gave an apologetic shrug. â€Å"I helped Pate carve the stone for the pommel,† the builder said, â€Å"and your friend Sam bought the garnets in Mole's Town.† â€Å"We knew even before that, though,† Grenn said. â€Å"Rudge has been helping Donal Noye in the forge. He was there when the Old Bear brought him the burnt blade.† â€Å"The sword!† Matt insisted. The others took up the chant. â€Å"The sword, the sword, the sword.† Jon unsheathed Longclaw and showed it to them, turning it this way and that so they could admire it. The bastard blade glittered in the pale sunlight, dark and deadly. â€Å"Valyrian steel,† he declared solemnly, trying to sound as pleased and proud as he ought to have felt. â€Å"I heard of a man who had a razor made of Valyrian steel,† declared Toad. â€Å"He cut his head off trying to shave.† Pyp grinned. â€Å"The Night's Watch is thousands of years old,† he said, â€Å"but I'll wager Lord Snow's the first brother ever honored for burning down the Lord Commander's Tower.† The others laughed, and even Jon had to smile. The fire he'd started had not, in truth, burned down that formidable stone tower, but it had done a fair job of gutting the interior of the top two floors, where the Old Bear had his chambers. No one seemed to mind that very much, since it had also destroyed Othor's murderous corpse. The other wight, the one-handed thing that had once been a ranger named Jafer Flowers, had also been destroyed, cut near to pieces by a dozen swords . . . but not before it had slain Ser Jaremy Rykker and four other men. Ser Jaremy had finished the job of hacking its head off, yet had died all the same when the headless corpse pulled his own dagger from its sheath and buried it in his bowels. Strength and courage did not avail much against foemen who would not fall because they were already dead; even arms and armor offered small protection. That grim thought soured Jon's fragile mood. â€Å"I need to see Hobb about the Old Bear's supper,† he announced brusquely, sliding Longclaw back into its scabbard. His friends meant well, but they did not understand. It was not their fault, truly; they had not had to face Othor, they had not seen the pale glow of those dead blue eyes, had not felt the cold of those dead black fingers. Nor did they know of the fighting in the riverlands. How could they hope to comprehend? He turned away from them abruptly and strode off, sullen. Pyp called after him, but Jon paid him no mind. They had moved him back to his old cell in tumbledown Hardin's Tower after the fire, and it was there he returned. Ghost was curled up asleep beside the door, but he lifted his head at the sound of Jon's boots. The direwolf's red eyes were darker than garnets and wiser than men. Jon knelt, scratched his ear, and showed him the pommel of the sword. â€Å"Look. It's you.† Ghost sniffed at his carved stone likeness and tried a lick. Jon smiled. â€Å"You're the one deserves an honor,† he told the wolf . . . and suddenly he found himself remembering how he'd found him, that day in the late summer snow. They had been riding off with the other pups, but Jon had heard a noise and turned back, and there he was, white fur almost invisible against the drifts. He was all alone, he thought, apart from the others in the litter. He was different, so they drove him out. â€Å"Jon?† He looked up. Samwell Tarly stood rocking nervously on his heels. His cheeks were red, and he was wrapped in a heavy fur cloak that made him look ready for hibernation. â€Å"Sam.† Jon stood. â€Å"What is it? Do you want to see the sword?† If the others had known, no doubt Sam did too. The fat boy shook his head. â€Å"I was heir to my father's blade once,† he said mournfully. â€Å"Heartsbane. Lord Randyll let me hold it a few times, but it always scared me. It was Valyrian steel, beautiful but so sharp I was afraid I'd hurt one of my sisters. Dickon will have it now.† He wiped sweaty hands on his cloak. â€Å"I ah . . . Maester Aemon wants to see you.† It was not time for his bandages to be changed. Jon frowned suspiciously. â€Å"Why?† he demanded. Sam looked miserable. That was answer enough. â€Å"You told him, didn't you?† Jon said angrily. â€Å"You told him that you told me.† â€Å"I . . . he . . . Jon, I didn't want to . . . he asked . . . I mean I think he knew, he sees things no one else sees . . . â€Å" â€Å"He's blind,† Jon pointed out forcefully, disgusted. â€Å"I can find the way myself.† He left Sam standing there, openmouthed and quivering. He found Maester Aemon up in the rookery, feeding the ravens. Clydas was with him, carrying a bucket of chopped meat as they shuffled from cage to cage. â€Å"Sam said you wanted me?† The maester nodded. â€Å"I did indeed. Clydas, give Jon the bucket. Perhaps he will be kind enough to assist me.† The hunched, pink-eyed brother handed Jon the bucket and scurried down the ladder. â€Å"Toss the meat into the cages,† Aemon instructed him. â€Å"The birds will do the rest. â€Å" Jon shifted the bucket to his right hand and thrust his left down into the bloody bits. The ravens began to scream noisily and fly at the bars, beating at the metal with night-black wings. The meat had been chopped into pieces no larger than a finger joint. He filled his fist and tossed the raw red morsels into the cage, and the squawking and squabbling grew hotter. Feathers flew as two of the larger birds fought over a choice piece. Quickly Jon grabbed a second handful and threw it in after the first. â€Å"Lord Mormont's raven likes fruit and corn.† â€Å"He is a rare bird,† the maester said. â€Å"Most ravens will eat grain, but they prefer flesh. It makes them strong, and I fear they relish the taste of blood. In that they are like men . . . and like men, not all ravens are alike.† Jon had nothing to say to that. He threw meat, wondering why he'd been summoned. No doubt the old man would tell him, in his own good time. Maester Aemon was not a man to be hurried. â€Å"Doves and pigeons can also be trained to carry messages,† the maester went on, â€Å"though the raven is a stronger flyer, larger, bolder, far more clever, better able to defend itself against hawks . . . yet ravens are black, and they eat the dead, so some godly men abhor them. Baelor the Blessed tried to replace all the ravens with doves, did you know?† The maester turned his white eyes on Jon, smiling. â€Å"The Night's Watch prefers ravens.† Jon's fingers were in the bucket, blood up to the wrist. â€Å"Dywen says the wildlings call us crows,† he said uncertainty. â€Å"The crow is the raven's poor cousin. They are both beggars in black, hated and misunderstood.† Jon wished he understood what they were talking about, and why. What did he care about ravens and doves? If the old man had something to say to him, why couldn't he just say it? â€Å"Jon, did you ever wonder why the men of the Night's Watch take no wives and father no children?† Maester Aemon asked. Jon shrugged. â€Å"No.† He scattered more meat. The fingers of his left hand were slimy with blood, and his right throbbed from the weight of the bucket. â€Å"So they will not love,† the old man answered, â€Å"for love is the bane of honor, the death of duty.† That did not sound right to Jon, yet he said nothing. The maester was a hundred years old, and a high officer of the Night's Watch; it was not his place to contradict him. The old man seemed to sense his doubts. â€Å"Tell me, Jon, if the day should ever come when your lord father must needs choose between honor on the one hand and those he loves on the other, what would he do?† Jon hesitated. He wanted to say that Lord Eddard would never dishonor himself, not even for love, yet inside a small sly voice whispered, He fathered a bastard, where was the honor in that? And your mother, what of his duty to her, he will not even say her name. â€Å"He would do whatever was right,† he said . . . ringingly, to make up for his hesitation. â€Å"No matter what.† â€Å"Then Lord Eddard is a man in ten thousand. Most of us are not so strong. What is honor compared to a woman's love? What is duty against the feel of a newborn son in your arms . . . or the memory of a brother's smile? Wind and words. Wind and words. We are only human, and the gods have fashioned us for love. That is our great glory, and our great tragedy. â€Å"The men who formed the Night's Watch knew that only their courage shielded the realm from the darkness to the north. They knew they must have no pided loyalties to weaken their resolve. So they vowed they would have no wives nor children. â€Å"Yet brothers they had, and sisters. Mothers who gave them birth, fathers who gave them names. They came from a hundred quarrelsome kingdoms, and they knew times may change, but men do not. So they pledged as well that the Night's Watch would take no part in the battles of the realms it guarded. â€Å"They kept their pledge. When Aegon slew Black Harren and claimed his kingdom, Harren's brother was Lord Commander on the Wall, with ten thousand swords to hand. He did not march. In the days when the Seven Kingdoms were seven kingdoms, not a generation passed that three or four of them were not at war. The Watch took no part. When the Andals crossed the narrow sea and swept away the kingdoms of the First Men, the sons of the fallen kings held true to their vows and remained at their posts. So it has always been, for years beyond counting. Such is the price of honor. â€Å"A craven can be as brave as any man, when there is nothing to fear. And we all do our duty, when there is no cost to it. How easy it seems then, to walk the path of honor. Yet soon or late in every man's life comes a day when it is not easy, a day when he must choose.† Some of the ravens were still eating, long stringy bits of meat dangling from their beaks. The rest seemed to be watching him. Jon could feel the weight of all those tiny black eyes. â€Å"And this is my day . . . is that what you're saying?† Maester Aemon turned his head and looked at him with those dead white eyes. It was as if he were seeing right into his heart. Jon felt naked and exposed. He took the bucket in both hands and flung the rest of the slops through the bars. Strings of meat and blood flew everywhere, scattering the ravens. They took to the air, shrieking wildly. The quicker birds snatched morsels on the wing and gulped them down greedily. Jon let the empty bucket clang to the floor. The old man laid a withered, spotted hand on his shoulder. â€Å"It hurts, boy,† he said softly. â€Å"Oh, yes. Choosing . . . it has always hurt. And always will. I know.† â€Å"You don't know,† Jon said bitterly. â€Å"No one knows. Even if I am his bastard, he's still my father . . . â€Å" Maester Aemon sighed. â€Å"Have you heard nothing I've told you, Jon? Do you think you are the first?† He shook his ancient head, a gesture weary beyond words. â€Å"Three times the gods saw fit to test my vows. Once when I was a boy, once in the fullness of my manhood, and once when I had grown old. By then my strength was fled, my eyes grown dim, yet that last choice was as cruel as the first. My ravens would bring the news from the south, words darker than their wings, the ruin of my House, the death of my kin, disgrace and desolation. What could I have done, old, blind, frail? I was helpless as a suckling babe, yet still it grieved me to sit forgotten as they cut down my brother's poor grandson, and his son, and even the little children . . . â€Å" Jon was shocked to see the shine of tears in the old man's eyes. â€Å"Who are you?† he asked quietly, almost in dread. A toothless smile quivered on the ancient lips. â€Å"Only a maester of the Citadel, bound in service to Castle Black and the Night's Watch. In my order, we put aside our house names when we take our vows and don the collar.† The old man touched the maester's chain that hung loosely around his thin, fleshless neck. â€Å"My father was Maekar, the First of his Name, and my brother Aegon reigned after him in my stead. My grandfather named me for Prince Aemon the Dragonknight, who was his uncle, or his father, depending on which tale you believe. Aemon, he called me . . . â€Å" â€Å"Aemon . . . Targaryen?† Jon could scarcely believe it. â€Å"Once,† the old man said. â€Å"Once. So you see, Jon, I do know . . . and knowing, I will not tell you stay or go. You must make that choice yourself, and live with it all the rest of your days. As I have.† His voice fell to a whisper. â€Å"As I have . . . â€Å"

The Wealth of Nations

The Wealth of Nations was published 9 March 1776, during the Scottish Enlightenment and the Scottish Agricultural Revolution. It influenced a number of authors and economists, as well as governments and organizations. Synopsis I: Of the Causes of Improvement in the productive Powers of Labour Of the Division of Labour: Division of labour has caused a greater increase in production than any other factor. This diversification is greatest for nations with more industry and improvement, and is responsible for â€Å"universal opulence† in those countries. Agriculture is less amenable than industry to division of labour; hence, rich nations are not so far ahead of poor nations in agriculture as in industry. Of the Principle which gives Occasion to the Division of Labour: Division of labour arises not from innate wisdom, but from humans' propensity to barter. The apparent difference in natural talents between people is a result of specialization, rather than any innate cause. That the Division of Labour is Limited by the Extent of the Market: Limited opportunity for exchange discourages division of labour. Because â€Å"water-carriage† extends the market, division of labour, with its improvements, comes earliest to cities near waterways. Civilization began around the highly navigable Mediterranean Sea†¦ Of the Origin and Use of Money: With division of labour, the producer of one's own labour can fill only a small part of one's needs. Different commodities have served as a common medium of exchange, but all nations have finally settled on metals, which are durable and divisible, for this purpose. Before coinage, people had to weigh and assay with each exchange, or risk â€Å"the grossest frauds and impositions. Thus nations began stamping metal, on one side only, to ascertain purity, or on all sides, to stipulate purity and amount. The quantity of real metal in coins has diminished, due to the â€Å"avarice and injustice of princes and sovereign states,† enabling them to pay their debts in appearance only, and to the defraudment of creditors. Of the Real and Nominal Price of Commodities, or of their Price in Labour, and their Price in Money: Smith gives two conflicting definitions of the relative value of a commodity. Adam Smith, â€Å"What everything really costs to the man, who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquiring it. What everything is really worth to the man who has acquired it, and who wants to dispose of it, or exchange it for something else, is the toil and trouble which it can save to himself, and which it can impose upon other people. That this is really the foundation of the exchangeable value of all things, excepting those which cannot be increased by human industry, is a doctrine of the utmost importance in political economy. â€Å"The value of any commodity †¦ is equal to the quantity of labour which it enables him to purchase or command. Labour, therefore, is the real measure of the exchangeable value of all commodities. † Of the Component Parts of the Price of Commodities: Smith argues that the price of any product reflects wages, rent of land and â€Å"†¦ profit of stock,† which compensates the capitalist for risking his resources. Of the Natural and Market Price of Commodities: â€Å"When the quantity of any commodity which is brought to market falls short of the effectual demand, all those who are willing to pay†¦ annot be supplied with the quantity which they want†¦ Some of them will be willing to give more. A competition will begin among them, and the market price will rise†¦ When the quantity brought to market exceeds the effectual demand, it cannot be all sold to those who are willing to pay the whole value of the rent, wages and profit, which must be paid in order to bring it thither†¦ The market price will sink†¦ † When demand exceeds supply, the price goes up. When the supply exceeds demand, the price goes down. Of the Wages of Labour: Smith describes how the wages of labour are dictated primarily by the competition among laborers and masters. When laborers bid against one another for limited opportunities for employment, the wages of labour collectively fall, whereas when employers compete against one another for limited supplies of labour, the wages of labour collectively rise. However, this process of competition is often circumvented by combinations among laborers and among masters. When laborers combine and no longer bid against one another, their wages rise, whereas when masters combine, wages fall. Of the Profits of Stock: Smith uses interest rates as an indicator of the profits of stock. This is because interest can only be paid with the profits of stock, and so creditors will be able to raise rates in proportion to the increase or decrease of the profits of their debtors. Smith argues that the profits of stock are inversely proportional to the wages of labour, because as more money is spent compensating labour, there is less remaining for personal profit. It follows that, in societies where competition among laborers is greatest relative to competition among employers, profits will be much higher. Smith illustrates this by comparing interest rates in England and Scotland. In England, government laws against usury had kept maximum interest rates very low, but even the maximum rate was believed to be higher than the rate at which money was usually loaned. In Scotland, however, interest rates are much higher. This is the result of a greater proportion of capitalists in England, which offsets some competition among laborers and raises wages. Of Wages and Profit in the Different Employments of Labour and Stock: Smith repeatedly attacks groups of politically aligned individuals who attempt to use their collective influence to manipulate the government into doing their bidding. At the time, these were referred to as â€Å"factions,† but are now more commonly called â€Å"special interests,† a term that can comprise international bankers, corporate conglomerations, outright oligopolies, trade unions and other groups. Indeed, Smith had a particular distrust of the tradesman class. He felt that the members of this class, especially acting together within the guilds they want to form, could constitute a power block and manipulate the state into regulating for special interests against the general interest: â€Å"People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices. It is impossible indeed to prevent such meetings, by any law which either could be executed, or would be consistent with liberty and justice. But though the law cannot hinder people of the same trade from sometimes assembling together, it ought to do nothing to facilitate such assemblies; much less to render them necessary. † Smith also argues against government subsidies of certain trades, because this will draw many more people to the trade than what would otherwise be normal, collectively lowering their wages. Motivates an understanding of the idea of feudalism. Of the Rent of the Land: Rent, considered as the price paid for the use of land, is naturally the highest the tenant can afford in the actual circumstances of the land. In adjusting lease terms, the landlord endeavors to leave him no greater share of the produce than what is sufficient to keep up the stock from which he furnishes the seed, pays the labour, and purchases and maintains the cattle and other instruments of husbandry, together with the ordinary profits of farming stock in the neighborhood. This is evidently the smallest share with which the tenant can content himself without being a loser, and the landlord seldom means to leave him anymore. Whatever part of the produce, or, what is the same thing, whatever part of its price, is over and above this share, he naturally endeavors to reserve to himself as the rent of his land, which is evidently the highest the tenant can afford to pay in the actual circumstances of the land. II: Of the Nature, Accumulation, and Employment of Stock Of the Division of Stock: â€Å"When the stock which a man possesses is no more than sufficient to maintain him for a few days or a few weeks, he seldom thinks of deriving any revenue from it. He consumes it as sparingly as he can, and endeavors by his labour to acquire something which may supply its place before it be consumed altogether. His revenue is, in this case, derived from his labour only. This is the state of the greater part of the laboring poor in all countries. † â€Å"But when he possesses stock sufficient to maintain him for months or years, he naturally endeavors to derive revenue from the greater part of it; reserving only so much for his immediate consumption as may maintain him till this revenue begins to come in. His whole stock, therefore, is distinguished into two parts. That part which, he expects, is to afford him this revenue, is called his capital. Of Money Considered as a particular Branch of the General Stock of the Society: â€Å"That the price of the greater part of commodities resolves itself into three parts, of which one pays the wages of the labour, another the profits of the stock, and a third the rent of the land which had been employed in producing and bringing them to market: that there are, indeed, some commodities of which the price is made up of two of those parts only, the wages of labour, and the profits of stock: and a very few in which it consists altogether in one, the wages of labour: but that the price of every commodity necessarily resolves itself into some one, or other, or all of these three parts; every part of it which goes neither to rent nor to wages, being necessarily profit to somebody. † Of the Accumulation of Capital, or of Productive and Unproductive Labour: â€Å"One sort of labour ads to the value of the subject upon which it is bestowed: there is another which has no such effect. The former, as it produces a value, may be called productive; the latter, unproduct ive labour. Thus the labour of a manufacturer adds, generally, to the value of the materials which he works upon, that of his own maintenance and of his master's profit. The labour of a menial servant, on the contrary, adds to the value of nothing. † Of Stock Lent at Interest: â€Å"The stock which is lent at interest is always considered as a capital by the lender. He expects that in due time it is to be restored to him, and that in the meantime the borrower is to pay him a certain annual rent for the use of it. The borrower may use it either as a capital, or as a stock reserved for immediate consumption. If he uses it as a capital, he employs it in the maintenance of productive labourers, who reproduce the value with a profit. He can, in this case, both restore the capital and pay the interest without alienating or encroaching upon any other source of revenue. If he uses it as a stock reserved for immediate consumption, he acts the part of a prodigal, and dissipates in the maintenance of the idle what was destined for the support of the industrious. He can, in this case, neither restore the capital nor pay the interest without either alienating or encroaching upon some other source of revenue, such as the property or the rent of land. † The stock which is lent at interest is, no doubt, occasionally employed in both these ways, but in the former much more frequently than in the latter. III: Of the different Progress of Opulence in different Nations Of the Natural Progress of Opulence: â€Å"The great commerce of every civilized society is that carried on between the inhabitants of the town and those of the country. It consists in the exchange of crude for manufactured produce, either immediately, or by the intervention of money, or of some sort of paper which represents money. The country supplies the town with the means of subsistence and the materials of manufacture. The town repays this supply by sending back a part of the manufactured produce to the inhabitants of the country. The town, in which there neither is nor can be any reproduction of substances, may very roperly be said to gain its whole wealth and subsistence from the country. We must not, however, upon this account, imagine that the gain of the town is the loss of the country. The gains of both are mutual and reciprocal, and the division of labour is in this, as in all other cases, advantageous to all the different persons employed in the various occupations into which it is subdivided. † Of the Discouragement of Agriculture: â€Å"Of the Discouragement of Agriculture in the Ancient State of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire†. â€Å"When the German and Scythian nations overran the western provinces of the Roman Empire, the confusions which followed so great a revolution lasted for several centuries. The rapine and violence which the barbarians exercised against the ancient inhabitants interrupted the commerce between the towns and the country. The towns were deserted, and the country was left uncultivated, and the western provinces of Europe, which had enjoyed a considerable degree of opulence under the Roman Empire, sunk into the lowest state of poverty and barbarism. During the continuance of those confusions, the chiefs and principal leaders of those nations acquired or usurped to themselves the greater part of the lands of those countries. A great part of them was uncultivated; but no part of them, whether cultivated or uncultivated, was left without a proprietor. All of them were engrossed, and the greater part by a few great proprietors. This original engrossing of uncultivated lands, though a great, might have been but a transitory evil. They might soon have been divided again, and broke into small parcels either by succession or by alienation. The law of primogeniture hindered them from being divided by succession: the introduction of entails prevented their being broke into small parcels by alienation. † Of the Rise and Progress of Cities and Towns, after the fall of the Roman Empire: â€Å"The inhabitants of cities and towns were, after the fall of the Roman empire, not more favored than those of the country. They consisted, indeed, of a very different order of people from the first inhabitants of the ancient republics of Greece and Italy. These last were composed chiefly of the proprietors of lands, among whom the public territory was originally divided, and who found it convenient to build their houses in the neighborhood of one another, and to surround them with a wall, for the sake of common defense. After the fall of the Roman Empire, on the contrary, the proprietors of land seem generally to have lived in fortified castles on their own estates, and in the midst of their own tenants and dependants. The towns were chiefly inhabited by tradesmen and mechanics, which seem in those days to have been of servile, or very nearly of servile condition. The privileges which we find granted by ancient charters to the inhabitants of some of the principal towns in Europe sufficiently show what they were before those grants. The people to whom it is granted as a privilege that they might give away their own daughters in marriage without the consent of their lord, that upon their death their own children, and not their lord, should succeed to their goods, and that they might dispose of their own effects by will, must, before those grants, have been either altogether or very nearly in the same state of villanage with the occupiers of land in the country. † How the Commerce of the Towns Contributed to the Improvement of the Country: Smith often harshly criticized those who act purely out of self-interest and greed, and warns that, â€Å"†¦ for us, and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of the world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of mankind. † IV: Of Systems of political Economy Of the Principle of the Commercial or Mercantile System: Specifically, The Wealth of Nations attacks, inter alia, two major tenets of mercantilism: 1. The idea that protectionist tariffs serve the economic interests of a nation (or indeed any purpose whatsoever) and 2. The idea that large reserve of gold bullion or other precious metals are necessary for a country's economic success. Of the extraordinary Restraints: â€Å"Of the extraordinary Restraints upon the Importation of Goods of almost all Kinds, from those Countries with which the Balance is supposed to be Disadvantageous†. Of Drawbacks: Merchants and manufacturers are not contented with the monopoly of the home market, but desire likewise the most extensive foreign sale for their goods. Of Treaties of Commerce: When a nation binds itself by treaty either to permit the entry of certain goods from one foreign country which it prohibits from all others, or to exempt the goods of one country from duties to which it subjects those of all others, the country, or at least the merchants and manufacturers of the country, whose commerce is so favored, must necessarily derive great advantage from the treaty. Those merchants and manufacturers enjoy a sort of monopoly in the country which is so indulgent to them. That country becomes a market both more extensive and more advantageous for their goods: more extensive, because the goods of other nations being either excluded or subjected to heavier duties, it takes off a greater quantity of theirs: more advantageous, because the merchants of the favored country, enjoying a sort of monopoly there, will often sell their goods for a better price than if exposed to the free competition of all other nations. † Of Colonies: Of the Motives for establishing new Colonies: The interest which occasioned the first settlement of the different European colonies in America and the West Indies was not altogether as plain and distinct as that which directed the establishment of those of ancient Greece and Rome. Causes of Prosperity of new Colonies: The colonists carry out with them knowledge of agriculture and of other useful arts superior to what can grow up of its own accord in the course of many centuries among savage and barbarous nations. They carry out with them, too, the habit of subordination, some notion of the regular government which takes place in their own country, of the system of laws which supports it, and of a regular administration of justice; and they naturally establish something of the same kind in the new settlement. Of the Agricultural Systems: â€Å"Of the Agricultural Systems, or of those Systems of Political Economy, which Represent the Produce of Land, as either the Sole or the Principal, Source of the Revenue and Wealth of Every Country†. V: Of the Revenue of the Sovereign or Commonwealth Smith postulated four â€Å"maxims† of taxation: proportionality, transparency, convenience, and efficiency. Of the Expenses of the Sovereign or Commonwealth: On taxation Smith wrote, â€Å"The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respe ctively enjoy under the protection of the state. The expense of government to the individuals of a great nation is like the expense of management to the joint tenants of a great estate, who are all obliged to contribute in proportion to their respective interests in the estate. In the observation or neglect of this maxim consists what is called the equality or inequality of taxation. † Of the Sources of the General or Public Revenue of the Society: In his discussion of taxes â€Å"The necessaries of life occasion the great expense of the poor. † They find it difficult to get food, and the greater part of their little revenue is spent in getting it. The luxuries and vanities of life occasion the principal expense of the rich, and a magnificent house embellishes and sets off to the best advantage all the other luxuries and vanities which they possess. A tax upon house-rents, therefore, would in general fall heaviest upon the rich; and in this sort of inequality there would not, perhaps, be anything very unreasonable. It is not very unreasonable that the rich should contribute to the public expense, not only in proportion to their revenue, but something more than in that proportion. † Of War and Public Debts: â€Å"†¦ when war comes politicians are both unwilling and unable to increase their tax revenue in proportion to the increase of their expense. They are unwilling for fear of offending the people, who, by so great and so sudden an increase of taxes, would soon be disgusted with the war †¦ The facility of borrowing delivers them from the embarrassment †¦ By means of borrowing they are enabled, with a very moderate increase of taxes, to raise, from year to year, money sufficient for carrying on the war, and by the practice of perpetually funding they are enabled, with the smallest possible increase of taxes [to pay the interest on the debt], to raise annually the largest possible sum of money [to fund the war †¦ The return of peace, indeed, seldom relieves them from the greater part of the taxes imposed during the war. These are mortgaged for the interest of the debt contracted in order to carry it on. † Smith then goes on to say that even if money was set aside from future revenues to pay for the debts of war, it seldom actually gets used to pay down the debt. Politicians are inclined to spend the money on some other scheme that will win the favor of their constituents. Hence, interest payments rise and war debts continue to grow larger, well beyond the end of the war. Impact– United States James Madison, in a speech given in Congress on 2 February 1791, cited The Wealth of Nations in opposing a national bank: â€Å"The principal disadvantages consisted in, 1st. banishing the precious metals, by substituting another medium to perform their office: This effect was inevitable. It was admitted by the most enlightened patrons of banks, particularly by Smith on the Wealth of Nations†. Thomas Jefferson, writing to John Novell on 14 June 1807, claimed that on â€Å"the subjects of money & commerce, Smith's Wealth of Nations is the best book to be read, unless Say's Political Economy can be had, which treats the same subject on the same principles, but in a shorter compass & more lucid manner†. Two views of the â€Å"Wealth of Nations† The â€Å"Wealth of Nations† is therefore inhomogeneous and consists of the earlier elements of an individualistic strain in the tradition of Aristotle, Puffendorf and Hutcheson, Smith’s teacher, – elements compatible with a neoclassical theory – and the classical theory Smith learned in France. Smith’s classical message is what he states at the very beginning: the two ways to create the â€Å"Wealth of Nations†. First, make productive labour even more productive by enhancing markets to deepen the division of labour (moving the neoclassical production curve to the right); and second, use more labour productively instead of unproductively, i. e. produce more goods and services that are inputs to the next economic reproduction circle, as opposed to goods used up in final consumption. In the words of Adam Smith: â€Å"The annual labour of every nation is the fund which originally supplies it with all the necessaries and conveniences of life which it annually consumes †¦ This produce †¦ bears a greater or smaller proportion to the number of those who are to consume it †¦ But this proportion must in every nation be regulated by two different circumstances; First, by the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which its labour is generally applied; and, Secondly, by the proportion between the numbers of those who are employed in useful labour, and that of those who are not so employed.

The Art of Villainy in Shakespeares play Essay Example

The Art of Villainy in Shakespeares play Essay Example The Art of Villainy in Shakespeares play Essay The Art of Villainy in Shakespeares play Essay YourLastName 1 YourFirstName YourLastName Instructors Name Course Title 3 May 2013 Edmund Vs. Iago: A Comparitive Analysis Of Shakespeares Villains VILLAINY OF EDMUND AND LAGO IN SHAKESPEAREAN PLAYS INTRODUCTION The plots of all Shakespearean tragedies follow a similar sequence of events. Typically Conflicts arise due to twist of events that set the two characters that had initially enjoyed a good relationship with each other on opposing ends. First it begins with the Exposition stage; this is where the reader is introduced to the setting under which the conflict arises, the characters involved and the state of issues at the time. The next stage is the build-up of events that will later culminate into the conflict. Here the conflict develops and grows. The final stage entails the climax of all events that emerge to turn the already matured conflict into a catastrophe (Bradley 41-43). For instance it is in the climax of the King Lears play that the spiteful son of Gloucester, Edgar kills his illegitimate brother in cold blood. Everything is left in chaos as the king dies and the remnants of the lost war, Albany, Edgar and Kent are left to deal with the pain and loss of their loved one. COMPARISION BETWEEN EDMUND IN KING LEAR V. LAGO IN OTHELLO Taking on their differences, Shakespeare paints the two characters as utterly villain not only in their actions but in their words too. Imagery and metaphors used in the plays are clear evidence of the depth of feeling and emotions involved. YourLastName 2 Edmund is the bustard son of Gloucester. The latter goes ahead to openly to declare the same in his statements when introducing his son to a friend Though this knave came something saucily into the world before he was called for, yet was his mother fair; there was good sport at his making, and the whoreson must be acknowledged (1 . . 21-24). Shakespeare hints that the mother of Edmund must have been a whore and her beautiful features might have been transferred to her bustard son. Clearly Gloucester did not like the young man at all. The playwright asserts that Edmund wasnt such a likeable character because even his own father insulted him! His hatred for the his bigger brother was based on the fact that the elder brother would inherited everything their father and he would get nothing second born son in the family. That made him Justify his villainy actions as he quotes The curiosity of nations to deprive me, For that I am some twelve or fourteen moon-shines . Lag of a brother? Why bastard? wherefore base? (1 . ii. 03-05). On the other hand, Iago is a trusted soldier under Othello. The two have a mutual to Michael Cassio by Othello. He utters out his hatred to Roderigo against the two although not much to Cassio as Othello in his sentiments one Michael Cassio, a Florentine (A fellow almost damnd in a fair wife), That never set a squadron in the field But he, sir, had th election (1. . 20-22). Themes relating Edmund and Lago 1 . Motives Lagos quest for revenge and treachery is instigated by the fact that although he was ost preferred as the new lieutenant, Cassio is given the position instead. This at first is the main reason why he plans to see Othello suffer. He is so spiteful as he refers to Othello as a Barbary horse, and old black ram, Initially as his plans fail to materialise and some ar e thwarted, his grip momentarily loosens only to revert and tighten even more. His motives YourLastName 3 vary as the plot unveils. At an instance his vengeful desire against Othello is fuelled by the award of a promotion to another yet at another instant he claims to suspect an affair between the latter and his wife Emilia. This is evident in his statement I hate the Moor; and it is thought abroad that twixt my sheets (1 . iii. 387). It is clearly indicated that Iago hates Othello because the latter is more honourable and has acquired a young and beautiful young lady, Desdemona to wife. We do not know the reason behind his utterance as he declares It cannot be that Desdemona should long continue her love to the Moor. She must change for youth. When she is sated with his body, she will find the error of her choice. Shakespeare leaves our minds to wonder and speculate about the same. The motive behind the shameful acts of Edmund is created by the constant abuse by his father and the fact that he is an illegitimate son. His only Joy is to see all that hurt him, his abusive father and step brother experience pain and suffering. He sets their father against Edgar his elder son by deceiving him that the latter is planning to kill the older man. In retaliation, Gloucester sets to kill his son thus Edgar has to flee form home and disguises himself as a beggar in Act 2 Scene 1 . Shakespeare leaves room for imagination as pertaining to the reasoning behind Edmund claim miet Edmund was beloved as he overlooks the deceased bodies of Goneril and Regan (5. iii. 15). 2. ART OF VILLAINY The play Othello begins with a mutual relationship between Othello and Lago. As the plot unveils, the character of Iago is unveiled as a deceitful person with hidden motives. He has indeed perfected the art of devilish such that even when his plans are derailed, he is careful enough to twist his schemes to fit the planned end. He plans to ruin the marriage between Othello and his wife Desdemona. In a bid to stop the consummation ceremony from taking place, Lago goes ahead to instigate Cassio o pick a fght with Roderigo and when Governor Montano intervene, he gets stabbed in the process. It is Lago who sends Roderigo to raise alarm concerning the chaos thus disrupting the already started ceremony. He gets so close to Othello without him suspecting of his motive and actually enjoys seeing him suffer. He taunts him and derives Joy seeing him get tormented by Jealousy by inciting Othello to think that his wife is cheating on him. He actually make the latter believe that his Wife Desdemona is cheating on him with Cassio. Lago is so excited to receive Othellos handkerchief that his wife Emilia had collected from the formers ouse. Although Emilia doesnt the point of ecstasy, Lago is overjoyed by the new twist of events, he immediately hatches a plan meant to drain Othellos happiness and inflict suffering. He goes ahead to plant evidence in Cassios room in order to implicate him in his claim of Desdemonas infidelity (Amanda). Shakespeare paints Edmund as a vile person and on many occasions in the play refers to him as bastardy and a bustard. Furthermore Shakespeare creates a Jerk out of him to fit the description of his character as depicted by his own father. He is a scamp and amazes he audience that such a person would still have the heart to feel remorseful upon the death of his enemies. After the demise of Goneril and Regan, he sorrowfully says Some good I mean to do, despite of my own nature, (3. v. 12). As Shakespeare paints it, we wonder if there is a little bit of humanity left in him to utter such a statement. His attempts to save Cordelia are unclear in reflection of his vile self. It is by deceitfulness of Edmund that sets Gloucester against his son Edgar after reading a letter written by the former that compromises the character of the elder brother. The hysical blindness i nflicted upon Gloucester by Cornwall is metaphorically related to the blinding of the former by Edmund against his elder brother. Discussing the similarities between the two villains Edmund and Lago, they both were skilled soldiers during their time. When scene changes from the urban Venice to the island of Cyprus, the people are protected by the military in which Iago is a soldier under Othello (Canning). Edmund with the English army defeats Cordelia commander of the French army and captures him and his wife, Lear. He deeply filled with remorse after the killing of YourLastName 5 Cordelia and Lear by his soldiers as he declares that he tried every attempt to save them but couldnt. Amanda Mabillard, 05/09/2010 acessed from shakespeareonline. com/ plays/othello/iagochar. html. Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. October 30, 2005 [EBo 0k #16966]. Accessed from pgdp. net. Pdf Canning, Albert Stratford George. Shakespeare Studied in Six Plays . London: T. F. Unwin, 1907. Shakespeare Online. 20 Aug. 2009. Accessed on 2nd may 2013

Parts Per Million Definition

Parts Per Million Definition Parts per million (ppm) is a commonly used unit of concentration for small values. One part per million is one part of solute per one million parts solvent  or 10-6. Parts per million and other parts per notations (e.g., parts per billion or parts per trillion) are dimensionless quantities with no units. Preferred methods for expressing parts per million include  Ã‚ µV/V (microvolume per volume),  Ã‚ µL/L (microliters per liter), mg/kg (milligram per kilogram),  Ã‚ µmol/mol (micromole per mole), and  µm/m (micrometer per meter). The parts per notation is used to describe dilute solutions in chemistry and engineering, but its meaning is ambiguous and it is not part of the SI system of measurement. The reason the system is ambiguous is because the concentration depends on the original unit fraction that is used. For example, comparing one milliliter of a sample to a million milliliters is different from comparing one mole to a million moles or one gram to one million grams. Sources Milton R. Beychok (2005). Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas. Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). Milton R. Beychok. ISBN 0964458802.Schwartz and Warneck (1995). Units for use in atmospheric chemistry (PDF). Pure Appl. Chem. 67: 1377–1406. doi:10.1351/pac199567081377

Principles of Aerodynamics Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Principles of Aerodynamics - Coursework Example 2: Coefficient of Drag = CD = 0.054 Area = S = 15 m2 Thrust = T= 1500 N Density= A = 0.5 kg/m3 For a steady and level flight, drag force is equal to the thrust produced by engines, D = T = 1500 N D = (? A V?2) S CD = (? (0.5) (V?2)) (15) (0.054) = 1500 => V? = 86.06 m/s = 8.6 E +1 m/s Question No. 3: Question No. 4: The sketches shown below illustrate the trend of variation in CL, CD, and L/D ratios with increasing angle of attack. Question No. 5: Critical Mach number corresponds to that value of Mach number for free stream flow for which a localized mach number of ‘1’ is obtained at any point around the airfoil. When this condition arises, a shock wave is created at the point where the flow reaches the sonic speed. As the speed increases, regions of very low pressure are created. This causes the flow to separate from the airfoil thereby substantially increasing the drag forces on it. The figure illustrates this phenomenon. Some of the important design features incor porated in the aircrafts in order to contain the effects of this situation are using thin airfoil and / or super critical airfoil (Anderson Introduction 763). Making an airfoil thinner increases the value of Critical Mach Number and hence the airplane can fly at very high speeds without a significant increase in drag forces on it. ... Their unique design limits the rise of drag forces even after the critical mach number is reached. Such airfoils have successfully been utilized in TACT aircraft program run by NASA Dryden Flight Research Center (Cury). Question No. 6: In the above illustration, the triangle represents the fuselage of an aircraft as seen from front. ‘’ is the angle of bank for the turn. LV = L cos  LH = L sin  The centripetal force required by the aircraft to take the turn is provided by horizontal component of lift force given by LH, equating the two; L sin  =  †¦ (a) the component LV balances the weight of the aircraft, hence = L cos  = mg From the above equation, L = mg / cos  Putting values in (a) and simplifying; g tan  =  putting values for  = 15o and r = 1500 m gives v = 62.79 m/s Load Factor = L/W = L/L cos  = 1/ cos  = 1/cos 15o = 1.035 Question No. 7: Following are the control surfaces used to control the motion of an aircraft along different axes: (1) The longitudinal axis: Ailerons (2) The Vertical or Normal Axis: Rudder (3) The lateral Axis: Elevator The figure shows the above mentioned control surfaces and the functions they perform. All the control surfaces work on the principle of creating drag for the incoming wind thereby changing the direction of the wind. Due to this change in velocity, a momentum change occurs which causes a force to act on the control surface and the desired movement of the aircraft is achieved this way. The ailerons tilt the aircraft around the longitudinal axis. They are always installed in pairs. The opposite motion of the two ailerons creates a couple which acts about the longitudinal axis to cause the desired motion. Rudder rotates the

Daniel Gilbert Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Daniel Gilbert - Essay Example Most of us agree when we say that college is one of the most beautiful parts of life. The endless giggles, the class bunking, the cultural concerts, every aspect of youth that we share with our friends turns out to be an experience that is to be cherished for a lifetime. Let us quickly take recourse to our youthful practices and check for the theory of super replicators that Daniel Gilbert so stoutly professes in his book. At the very start, he has suggested that the super replicator system works best in transferring beliefs from one person to another. Yes, this holds true for our school and college lives. In fact, our society is one in which we grow up believing what our parents and elders teach us ever since school. When it is time to start developing our own notions, friends and their preferences take over. Most of us like to look good amongst our friends, and the definition of â€Å"good† is also based on what they think is proper or successful. Gilbert suggests that just like genes replicate fast enough to govern our health requirements and tastes (Gilbert, 2007, p. 171), the super replicators inside us, also develop upon the existing psychology that is rampant in society. And we pick up new ones as favorable or unfavorable depending on what we observe (Gilbert, 2007, p. 172). The fact shows when we communicate with people adopting strategies of communication which will have the best favorable results with them. And if you take a quick look at college life around you, or go back to the days when you spent hours with your best buddies, you will find ample reason to agree with the theory. A friend wishes to go to an amusement park while another wants to check out the latest movie. You are stuck in between but the decision happens once you give a nod to one of the choices. As soon as there is a majority to one of the decisions, the third person falls in line freely. That is where super-replication takes place. College life is full of simple and